Atomic Structure

History

We are trying to construct a model of something we cannot possibly see. We can acquire information by doing experiments

John Dalton Used the Greek idea of atoms to explain why elements always reacted in simple proportions. Amongst other things he proposed the following: 1. Matter is composed of tiny particles called atoms 2. Atoms of a particular element are alike in size, shape and weight but differ from atoms of other elements

Atomic Structure
History J. J. Thomson

Knew atoms were neutral overall but consisted of positive and negative charge. From his experiments with the cathode ray tube he knew that these rays travelled in straight lines and that these rays could be deflected by magnetic and electric fields. From the direction of deflection he deduced the charge had to be negative. In 1897 he first measured the charge to mass ratio (e/m) of these particles and compared this to a hydrogen ion (opposite in charge)

Atomic Structure
History J. J. Thomson

If an electron is accelerated in a vacuum through a potential difference V then loss in potential = gain in kinetic energy. Since the potential difference is the PE per unit charge (E/Q) we get

1 2 eV mv 2
Where e is the charge on the electron, m is the mass of the electron and v is the electrons final velocity. We cannot determine v, e and m but we can find the ratio e/v.

Atomic Structure
History J. J. Thomson

This equation can be re-arranged to give speed of the electrons as

2Ve m

Atomic Structure
History J. J. Thomson

When electrons enter the magnetic field it experiences a force Bev Applying Newtons 2nd Law (F = ma) we get

v2 m Bev r Ber v m

Atomic Structure
History J. J. Thomson
But v2 2Ve m

Atomic Structure
History J. J. Thomson
So 2Ve Ber m m Cancelling e 2V 2 2 m Br
2

Atomic Structure
History J. J. Thomson

We can measure B, r and V. When J. J. Thomson measured these values and when substituted into the equation he found e/m for the particle to be over 1800 times greater than for the hydrogen ion. J. J. Deduced that either Mass of negative particle = mass of positive particle with 1800 time the charge or Charge of negative particle = charge of positive particle but with 1/1800 the mass.

Atomic Structure
History J. J. Thomson

J. J. Called this particle the electron. It took another 15 years since this discovery to determine the mass and charge of the electron separately. Millikan was responsible for finding the charge of the electron in his oil drop experiment. J. J. proposed a model called the "plum pudding model, in which thousands of tiny, negatively charged corpuscles swarm inside a sort of cloud of positive charge.

Atomic Structure
History Rutherford-Geiger-Marsden gold foil experiments 1911

these men knew that alpha particles were, charged helium ions that travelled in straight lines at very high speeds the plum pudding model of the atom (J. J. Thomson - 1897) said atom was sphere of positive matter in which electrons were randomly embedded (like raisins) with a radius of 10-10m. according to the plum pudding model the expected results of shooting a beam of alpha particles at thin gold foil should be that the alpha particles would pass straight through since there would be no concentration of charge and mass large enough to deflect the relatively massive alpha particle

Atomic Structure
History Rutherford-Geiger-Marsden gold foil experiments 1911

actual results: most of the particles passed through unharmed (missed Au atoms) a few were deflected off to the side a very few were reflected backward (head on collision with nucleus

Atomic Structure
History Rutherford-Geiger-Marsden gold foil experiments 1911

initial conclusions reached: 1. scattering must be due to encounters with charged atomic particles that are much smaller than the atom and at least as heavy as an alpha particle 2. must be some positive electric charges inside the atom to compensate for negative charges of the electrons 3. must be something in the atom much heavier than an electron to account for the mass of the atom 4. atoms must be mostly empty space 5. suppose an atom has a small central core (nucleus) which contains most of the mass of the atom and carries a positive electric charge that attracts the negative electrons (helping to keep them in orbit around this nucleus)

Atomic Structure
History Rutherford-Geiger-Marsden gold foil experiments 1911

Final conclusions:
1. 2. 3.

4.
5. 6.

positively charged protons concentrated in region inside atom called nucleus atoms total diameter much larger than that of the nucleus negatively charged particles, called electrons, were circling in orbit around the nucleus (a balance of forces holds them in orbit; the positive nucleus pulls electrons inward toward nucleus and a counterbalancing force called centripetal (which is the force that tends to make rotating bodies move away from the centre of rotation) tending to throw them outward, like a ball on a string being swung around your head). the positive electrical charge of the proton is equal in strength to the negative electrical charge of the electron the mass of the proton is 1836 times as great as the mass of an electron a particle in the nucleus having no electrical charge was predicted

Atomic Structure
History Chadwick

Although Rutherford had discovered the proton, he could not account for the extra mass in the atom. He speculated that it might be a combination of protons and electrons joined together but this was discounted by other scientists. The results of experiments by Chadwick involving firing particles at beryilium, showed that another particle of mass almost equal to the proton was present. This particle was not detectable at first. But the particles were large enough to knock protons out of paraffin wax. Chadwick named it the neutron.

Atomic Structure
Structure of the atom

Atomic Structure
Structure of the atom Table of masses and charges
Mass / kg Proton Neutron Electron 1.660 X 10-27 1.660 X 10-27 9.110 X 10-31 Charge / Coulombs 1.602 X 10-31 0 1.602 X 10-31

Atomic Structure
Structure of the atom Table of relative masses and charges
Relative Mass Proton Neutron 1 1 Relative Charge +1 0

Electron

-1

Atomic Structure
Structure of the atom Atomic notation

Protons and neutrons in a nucleus are called nucleons. The total number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus is called the nucleon number or mass number A. Nucleon number A = proton number Z + neutron number N. A=N+Z

Atomic Structure
Structure of the atom Atomic notation

Atomic Structure
Isotopes All atoms of an element have the same number of protons, but the numbers of neutrons may differ. Atoms of the same element but with different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes. Relative Atomic Mass The atomic mass unit is defined as one-twelfth of the mass of the commonest isotope of carbon (carbon-12).

Atomic Structure
Scattering X-Ray diffraction Is the method of determining atomic and molecular structures by measuring patterns of scattered X rays after they pass through a crystalline substance.

Atomic Structure
Scattering Neutron diffraction

Can also be used to observe structure of crystals. Can distinguish different types of elements more easily. Do not interact with charged particles so reflected from nuclei. Can also be used to investigate magnetic materials.

Atomic Structure
Scattering Electron diffraction

This method is good for detecting the distribution of atomic electrons in the bonds between the atoms. X-ray and neutron methods are not able to do this accurately.

High energy electron scattering

Used to measure the diameter of the nucleus.