Unit 1. Basic Concepts What is a computer- meaning, stages of evolution, generations Characteristics of a Computer, Advantages and Limitations.

s. Basic computer operations and functional units. Types of Computers- based on data handling technology, purpose and size Applications of computers. Data Representation. Binary number system, conversion from binary to decimal and vice versa, Computer Codes- BCD, EBCD, ASCII, ISCII, Unicode.

What Is a Computer?
Electronic device operating under the control of instructions stored in its own memory Accepts data
Raw facts, figures, and symbols

Processes data into information

Data that is organized, meaningful, and useful

Produces and stores results

History of the Computers

Earliest device: Abacus 600BC
1642: first mechanical adding machine by Blaise Pascal

1671: first calculator for multiplication by Baron Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz of Germany
1822: Difference machine by Charles Babbage to produce mathematical and Statistical tables 1880: keyboard machines in US, punched cards by Herman Hollerith

19th century: attempts to build mechanical computers

Early 20th century: mechanical counting systems (cash registers, etc.)

 Stages of evolution 1937-44: Mark I Computer-ASCC (Automatic Sequence Controlled Computer) 1939-42-ABC (Atanasoff-Berry Computer) 1943-46: ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator) 1946-52: EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) 1947-49: EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator) 1948: Manchester Mark I 1951:UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer)

Generations- Key hardware technologies, Key

Software technologies, Key Characteristics, Some representative systems
FIRST GENERATION (1941-1955) SECOND GENERATION (1956-1964) THIRD GENERATION (1964-1974) FOURTH GENERATION (1975-1989) FIFTH GENERATION (1989-PRESENT)

Computer Generations

FIRST GENERATION (1941-1955)

Key hardware technologies Vacuum tubes; electromagnetic relay memory; secondary storage: punched cards & punched tapes Key Software technologies Machine and assembly languages; stored program concept; mostly scientific applications Key Characteristics Bulky in size; Lot of air-conditioning required; very slow; consumed lot of power; highly unreliable; limited commercial use; commercial production difficult and costly; difficult to use Some representative systems ENIAC, EDVAC, EDSAC, UNIVAC I, IBM 701

SECOND GENERATION (1956-1964)

Key hardware technologies Transistors; smaller circuits, magnetic cores memory; magnetic tapes and disks secondary storage in addition to punched cards Key Software technologies Batch operating system; high-level programming languages; scientific and commercial applications Key Characteristics Faster, smaller, more reliable and easier to program than previous generation systems; generated less heat, required less power; commercial production was still difficult and costly Some representative systems Honeywell 400, IBM 7030, CDC 1604, UNIVAC LARC

THIRD GENERATION (1964-1974)

Key hardware technologies Integrated Circuits with SSI and MSI technologies; larger magnetic cores memory; larger capacity disks and magnetic tapes secondary storage; minicomputers Key Software technologies Timesharing operating system; standardization of high-level programming languages; unbundling of software from hardware Key Characteristics Faster, smaller, more reliable, easier and cheaper to produce commercially, easier to use, and easier to upgrade than previous generation systems; scientific, commercial and interactive on-line applications Some representative systems IBM 360/370, PDP-8, PDP-11, CDC 6600

FOURTH GENERATION (1975-1989)

Key hardware technologies Microprocessors; ICs with VLSI technology; semiconductor memory; larger capacity hard disks as inbuilt secondary storage; magnetic tapes and floppy disks as portable storage media; spread of high-speed computer networks Key Software technologies GUI; multiple windows on a single terminal screen; Operating systems for PCs; multiprocessing operating systems; UNIX operating system; C programming language; Object oriented design and programming; PC-based applications; network-based applications; supercomputing applications

FOURTH GENERATION (1975-1989)

Key Characteristics Small, affordable, reliable, and easy to use PCs; more powerful and reliable mainframe systems and supercomputers; totally general purpose machines; easier to produce commercially; easier to upgrade; rapid software development possible Some representative systems IBM PC and its clones, Apple II, TRS80, V AX 9000, CRAY-l, CRAY-2, CRAYX/MP

FIFTH GENERATION (1989-PRESENT)

Key hardware technologies ICs with ULSI technology; larger capacity main memory; larger capacity hard disks with RAID support; portable storage: optical disks, pen drives Key Software technologies Microkernel-based operating systems; multithreading operating systems; parallel processing distributed computing systems; World Wide Web; internetbased applications; multimedia applications; more complex supercomputing applications; artificial intelligence

FIFTH GENERATION (1989-PRESENT)

Key Characteristics more powerful, cheaper, reliable, and easier to use desktop machines; Portable computers; notebook computers; workstations; powerful servers; very powerful supercomputers; totally general purpose machines; easier to produce commercially; easier to upgrade; rapid software development possible Some representative systems IBM notebooks, Pentium PCs, SUN Workstations, IBM SP12, SGI Origin 2000, PARAM 10000, Xybernaut Corps personal wearable computer: POMA

Technology
1965: Moores law [Gordon Moore] Computational power doubles every 18 months Speed of Microprocessors and Size of Main Memory & Hard Disk Double Every 18 Months Drives functionality, performance, cost Corollary to Moores Law: Cost halves every two years

CHARACTERISTICS OF A COMPUTER
1. Automatic. Computers are automatic machines because once started on a job, they carry on until the job is finished, normally without any human assistance. However, computers being machines cannot start themselves. They have to be instructed. The set of instructions is called a computer program. 2. Speed. Speed refers to the amount of time a computer takes in accomplishing a task or completing an operation. Computers are capable of performing 100 million calculations per second. (MIPS- Million Instructions Per Second).

3. Accuracy. Accuracy refers to the degree of exactness with which computations are made and operations are performed. The accuracy of a computer is consistently high. If the input data entering the computer are correct and if the program of instructions is reliable, then computer generally will produce accurate output. Errors may occur due to bad programming, erroneous data and deviations from procedures which are in fact the errors caused by human beings. Errors attributable to hardware are normally detected and corrected by the computer system itself. 4. Diligence. Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness, lack of concentration, etc., and hence can work for hours together without creating any error and without grumbling.

5. Versatility. Versatility refers to the ability of computers to perform a variety of tasks simple as well as complex. Computers are versatile unless designed for a specific application. A general purpose computer is capable of being used in any area of application, viz., business, scientific, statistical, technological, communications, etc.

6. Reliability Reliability refers to the ability with which the computers remain functional to serve the user. Computer systems are well-adapted to perform repetitive operations. They are immune to tiredness, boredom or fatigue. 6. Storage It refers to the amount of data a computer system can store and access. A computer can store and recall any amount of information because of its secondary storage capability. Every piece of information can be retained as long as desired by the user and can be recalled as and when required.

ADVANTAGES OF A COMPUTER
The advantages of the computers can be judged from the various characteristics like, High Speed, Accuracy, Diligence, Versatility, Power of remembering, storage, mentioned in its characteristics.

LIMITATION OF A COMPUTER
1. Lack of Common Sense: Computer systems as on date do not possess any common sense because no fool proof algorithm has been designed to program Common sense. Computers work according to a stored program(s). 2. Zero IQ. Computers are dumb devices with zero Intelligence Quotient. They possess no intelligence of their own. They cannot visualize and think what exactly to do under a particular situation, unless they have been programmed to tackle that situation.

3. Lack of Decision making Computers cannot take decisions on their own unless programmed for it. If a computer has not been programmed for a particular decision situation, it will not take decision due to lack of wisdom and evaluating faculties. 4. No Feelings Computers are devoid of emotions. They have no feelings and no instincts because they are machines.

Application of Computers
Education, Finance, Government, Healthcare, Science, Publishing, Travel, Manufacturing

Computers cost-effective for

National security weapons design Enterprise computing banking Departmental computing CAD, CAM Personal computer spreadsheets, email, web

Countless industries revolutionized: aviation,

astronomy, engineering, long range weather forecasting, airlines & railway reservation, entertainment

Basic computer operations

Input Storage Processing Output

Functional units
Processor/Central Processing Unit
ALU, CU and Internal processor memory

Input Unit Output Unit Storage Unit

A Computer has

Input

Processor

Output

Storage

Von Neumanns Definition

1. Processor/Central Processing Unit The electronic component that interprets and carries out the basic instructions that operate the computer 2. Input Unit Accepts instructions and data 3. Output Unit communicates result to the user 4. Storage Unit Stores temporary and final results

Central Processing Unit (CPU )

interprets, coordinates the operations and supervises the instructions. Controls usage of main memory to store data and instructions Highly complex, extensive set of electronic circuitry which executes stored program instructions necessary circuits to create CPU are fabricated on a microprocessor Main subsystems: ALU, CU and Internal processor memory (Cache & Registers)

Subsystems of CPU
1. Control unit
Directs computer system to carry out, or execute, stored program instructions Directs flow between memory and ALU Directs flow between CPU and I/O devices Repeats 4 basic operations
Fetch instruction Decode instruction Execute instruction Store results

2. Arithmetic and logic unit

Performs arithmetical and logical operations AU: performs actual computing and carries out arithmetic calculations, such as +, -, X and . LU: makes logical operations such as comparison (=, !=, <,>,, ) of numbers, letters, or special characters and take action based on the result of comparison

3. Internal Processor memory 1. Cache Memory High speed, expensive piece of memory, which is used to speed up memory retrieval process CPU comes with a small amount of cache compared main memory due to its higher cost Computer uses logic to determine most frequently accessed data and keeps them in cache. Made from high speed static RAM that reduces the access time of the data

Cache Memory
Categorised into three levels: L1 Cache , L2 Cache and L3 Cache L1 Cache:
Primary Cache, closest to the processor Size: 8 to 64 KB or more Very fast, runs at the speed of the processor since it is integrated into it

L2 Cache:
Larger but slower Recent accesses not picked by L1 Cache Size: 64 KB to 2 MB Also found on CPU

L3 Cache:
Extra cache built into motherboard between the processor and main memory Speeds up processing operations, reducing time gap b/w request and retrieving of data and instructions much more quickly than main memory Size: 3 MB or more

Subsystems of CPU
2. Registers
Special purpose, high speed temporary memory units for holding data, instructions, addresses, and intermediate results of calculations Working memory of CPU, hold the information that CPU is currently working on
Register Name Program Counter Instruction Register Memory address Register Memory Buffer Register Data Register Function Keeps track of next instruction to be executed Holds the instruction to be decoded by CU Holds address of next location in memory to be accessed Store data either coming to CPU or data being transferred by CPU Storing operands and other data

Computer Memory Primary memory Vs. Secondary memory Primary

RAM & its types- (static Vs. dynamic) ROM & its types- (PROM, EPROM, EEPROM, UVPROM, Flash memory) Cache memory, Registers

Memory
Electronic holding place for instructions & data where the computers processor can reach quickly. Holds intermediate results during course of calculations and provides data as and when required
1. Internal processor memory 2. Primary memory 3. Secondary memory

1. Internal Processor memory: fastest, most expensive, compensate speed gap between primary memory and processor
1. Cache 2. Special registers

Primary Memory
Processes or directly stores and retrieves data from the secondary memory Internal storage called primary memory or main memory CPU can access the main memory in random manner, i.e., any location to read information from it or store information in it Primary Memory is implemented by two types of memory technologies, viz., RAM and ROM

Primary Memory

Random Access Memory (RAM)

Block of sequential memory locations each of which has a unique address determining the location & those locations contain a data element Temporary holding place for data waiting to be processed, application programs and the operating system Addressable and volatile Read/write memory 2 categories: DRAM & SRAM

Dynamic RAM Holds data in dynamic manner with the help of refresh circuitry Unstable: keeps refreshing the content of each memory cell by reading it several hundred times per second to maintain the data Used for systems main memory because its cheap & small Static RAM Retains contents as long as power is provided to the memory chips Does not need to be refreshed periodically Fast but more expensive than DRAM Used as cache memory due to its high speed

Read-Only Memory (ROM)

Holds computer start up instructions and routines in BIOS Read by CPU each time it is switched on Non-volatile: contents not lost even if power failure; no current required for information to remain stored Firmware: Hard wired instructions, read only, i.e. cant be changed by the user Random access in nature Used even in calculators & peripheral devices s.a. laser printers Types: PROM, EPROM, EEPROM

PROM- Programmable ROM

Cheap blank PROMs available Programmable only once

EPROM-Erasable PROM Can be erased & reprogrammed Entire chip can be erased by exposing to UV light, also called UVEPROM More expensive than PROM Used in software development and testing by R&D personnel EEPROM-Electrically EPROM Can be erased by electrical charge, one byte at a time Flexible, easier to alter than UVEPROM but slow Used to store programmable instructions in peripheral devices

Flash ROM
constantly powered non-volatile memory that can be erased and reprogrammed in blocks variation of EEPROM used to hold control code s.a. BIOS Also used in digital cellular phones, MP3 players, modems, digital camera, etc.

Virtual memory
Hard disk used as an extension of RAM Data swapped between HD and RAM as needed by the processor Imaginary memory supported by OS

3. Secondary Memory
Auxiliary memory, back up storage for software program & data Hard disk, magnetic disk, magnetic tapes, floppy disks, CDROM, DVDROM, Pen drives etc Less expensive as compared to primary memory Much larger storage capacity than primary memory Not directly accessible by processor, primary memory has a faster access time as compared to secondary memory Data, instructions stored are permanent in nature; can be removed only if user wants it.

Categories of Computers

Categories of Computers
1. According to Technology Analog Computers Digital computers Hybrid Computers 2. According to Purpose Special Purpose Computer Scientific Computers Business Computers General purpose computer

3. According to Size
Super Computer Main Frame Computer Mini Computer Micro Computer Personal Computers (PCs) Work Stations Portable computers- Notebook, Netbook Handheld- Personal Digital Assistants

4. According to Role Server Client Network

According to Technology.
Analog Computers
Principle of measurement Measure continuous physical magnitudes, such as pressure, voltage, temperature etc. Used for scientific & engineering purpose Give approximate results because quantities vary continuously Accuracy is less though very fast Digital computers Operates with information, numerical or otherwise represented in a digital form Accepts data (text, sound, graphic & video) through various input devices, converts data into electronic pulses, performs arithmetic and logical operations, processing and give results. More accurate and faster than analog computers

According to Technology.
Hybrid Computers These computers incorporate the technology of both, Analog and Digital computers Measuring feature of an analog computer and computational feature of a digital computer Used for scientific, engineering, industrial applications

According to Purpose
General purpose computer
Perform a variety of tasks Store a number of programs for various applications ranging from business, scientific, educational, social and other applications Though versatile, they lack speed & efficiency

Special Purpose Computer

dedicated computer, designed to handle specific problem or to perform special tasks, e.g. airlines reservation, satellite tracking, Air Traffic Control, medical diagnosis, space applications, weather forecasting, banking operations Very quick & efficient

Scientific Computers
Designed to best suited for large mathematical calculations.

Business Computers
These will lack or take more time in scientific calculation, but be fully equipped to produce well layout business reports.

According to Size
Super Computer
fastest computing devices ever invented Speed measured in teraflops (1012 FLoating-point Operations Per Sec). Use Multi processing and parallel processing consist of thousands of integrated microprocessors, main memory of around 16 GB and secondary memory 1000 GB e.g., PARAM 10000, PACE, CRAY, Cyber, IBM Blue Gene IBMs Blue Gene installed at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) in California operates at 360 teraflops, used to study cosmology and the behaviour of stellar binary pairs, laser-plasma interactions, and the behaviour and aging of high explosives.

According to Size
Main Frame Computer
processes several millions of instructions per second bigger & more expensive than workstations Used in banks and insurance cos., processing on-line transactions, ERP, Survey etc. Large disks to store terabytes of data, transfer data from disk to main memory at several hundred MB per sec, process 100 million transactions per sec. Proprietary OS e.g., IBMs System/390, VAX 8000, CDC 6600

According to Size
Mini Computer
middle sized special purpose computers used in transaction processing applications as interface between main frame and WAN, Serves as a centralised storehouse for a cluster of workstations or as a network server Usually multi-user systems, used in industries, research organisations, colleges & universities work well with distributed data processing, supports 4 to 200 simultaneous users VAX 7500, IBM (8000 series), PDP-11.

According to Size
Work Stations
desktop machines having a powerful processor than a micro (10 times speedier than PC) Main memory: several GBs HD: 100s of GB support multi-user environment Operating System: UNIX or its derivatives like AIX (IBM), Solaris (SUN), HP-UX (HP) a sophisticated screen display featuring a high resolution colour graphics, large video screens, inbuilt h/w to connect to LAN meet computing requirements of engineers, architects Business & industry usage for executing numeric, graphic intensive multimedia applications s.a. CAD, simulation of complex systems Also called super micros. e.g. DEC, IBM, Sun Workstations

According to Size
Micro Computer
Small, low cost digital computer most familiar kind of computers Originally designed for single user, when networked together can serve more than one user Many uses these include: desktop, laptop, PDAs

According to Size- Micro computer

Desktop computer
Personal computer, stand-alone use by an individual Not expensive Used by individuals and small businesses MS-Windows, Windows XP, LINUX Apple Macintosh (Power PC Processor), IBM PCs (Intel Pentium processor)

According to Size- Micro computer Portable computers

Laptop/Note Books combine the power of PC with mobility, powered with battery. Weight around 2kg Keyboard, flat screen LCD Wireless connectivity to networks Cost more than Desktop

According to Size- Micro computer

Personal Digital Assistants
PDAs are much smaller than laptops, handheld computer also known as Palmtop, Simputer combine pen input (i.e. stylus), writing recognition and communication capabilities No hard disk, use small cards to store programs and data Runs on batteries Limited processing capabilities and memory E.g., Palm pilots, Mind Spring, i-Paq, Casio Cassiopeia, Apple Newton, Franklin eBookMan

According to Role
Server Large computer, manages shared resources and provides services to clients specific purpose such as high performance numerical computing (called compute server), web page hosting, database store, printing, etc. Interactive large screens not necessary as in case of workstations Compute server: high performance processors, large main memory Database server: large on-line disk storage (100s of GB) Print server: support several high speed printers May be a workstation, mainframe or even a super computer

According to Role
Client A single user PC or workstation that provides a highly user friendly interface to the end user Runs client processes which sends service request to server Network Interconnects all the clients and servers of the client-server computing environment

Data Representation
Binary number system & its relevance Conversion of numbers among Binary Octal

Hexadecimal
Decimal Binary representation of integers and real numbers

Sign and magnitude representation

Complement representation Performing simple arithmetic on binary numbers Computer Codes- BCD, EBCD, ASCII, ISCII, Unicode.

DATA REPRESENTATION
Number Systems: Positional, Non Positional (Roman) Positional: Decimal (base 10), Binary-2, Octal-8, Hexadecimal-16 BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM In binary number system, there are only two states: 0 and 1. These are also called binary digits or bits. The use of binary number system in digital computers has made the design of digital computers very simple. All information is represented using zeros and ones. 0 and 1 in binary number system are used to represent decimal numbers 0 and 1, respectively.

BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM

Decimal Number 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Binary Number 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001 1010

Converting Binary to Decimal

(a) 101112 the right most bit is called the least significant bit (LSB), its weight is 20, i.e. 1. The next bit on the left side of LSB has a weight of 21, i.e. 2. The next bit has a weight of 22, i.e. 4, and so on. Thus, the rightmost bit, which is also called the most significant bit (MSB) in 10111 has a weight of 24, i.e. 16. 101112 = 1 x 2 4 + 0 x 23 + 1 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 1 x 20 =1x16+0x8+1x4+1x2+1x1 = 16 + 0 + 4 + 2 + 1 = 2310 (b)101010112 = 1 x 2 7 + 0 x 26 + 1 x 25 + 0 x 24 + 1 x 23 + 0 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 1 x 2 0 = 1 x 128 + 0 x 64 + 1 x 32 + 0 x 16 + 1 x 8 + 0 x 4 + 1 x 2 + 1 x 1 = 128 + 0 + 32 + 0 + 8 + 0 + 2 + 1 = 17110

Converting Decimal to Binary

Divide decimal number by 2. Then the result (quotient) is successively divided again by 2, till it cannot be divided further. The binary number is obtained by writing the remainders of these divisions backward.

Convert 4210 into binary number 2 42

21 10 5 2 1 0 (42)2= (101010)10 Remainder 0 1 0 1 0 1

COMPUTER CODES
Commonly used coding systems: BCD, ASCII, EBCDIC, Unicode, etc. 1. Binary-coded decimal (BCD) is a numeral system used in computing and in electronics systems. In BCD, numbers are represented as a sequence of decimal digits in which each digit is represented by four bits:
Digit 0 1 bits 0000 0001 Digit 2 3 bits 0010 0011 Digit 4 5 bits 0100 0101 Digit 6 7 bits 0110 0111 Digit 8 9 bits 1000 1001

Binary-coded decimal (BCD)

To encode a number such as 127, for example, each of the decimal digits is encoded using the bit pattern shown above, that is: 0001, 0010, 0111. Most computers store data in eight-bit bytes, so there are two common ways of storing four-bit BCD digits in those bytes: Ignore the extra four bits of each byte, usually filling them with either zero bits or one bits (as in EBCDIC) Store two digits per byte, called "packed" BCD. Packed BCD numbers also usually end with a sign 'digit', for which the preferred values are 1100 for + and 1101 for -. Thus the number 127 would be represented as (11110001, 11110010, 11110111) in EBCDIC or (00010010, 01111100) in packed BCD. BCD is wasteful (about 1/6 of the available memory is wasted, even in packed BCD),

2. EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code) EBCDIC was devised in the 1963-1964 by IBM It is an 8-bit character encoding used on IBM mainframes and AS/400s. It is descended from punched cards and the corresponding six bit binary-coded decimal code that most of IBM's computer peripherals of the late 1950s and early 1960s used. Single byte EBCDIC takes up eight bits, which are divided in two pieces. The first four bits are called the zone and represent the category of the character, the last four bits are the called the digit and identify the specific character. It was created to extend the Binary Coded Decimal that existed at the time.

3. AMERICAN STANDARD CODE FOR INFORMATION INTERCHANGE (ASCII) ASCII (generally pronounced ski), is a character set and a character encoding based on the Roman alphabet as used in modern English and other Western European languages. Most commonly used by computers and other communication equipment to represent text and by control devices that work with text. ASCII specifies a correspondence between digital bit patterns and the symbols/glyphs of a written language, thus allowing digital devices to communicate with each other and to process, store, and communicate character-oriented information. ASCII is, strictly, a seven-bit code, meaning that it uses the bit patterns representable with seven binary digits (a range of 0 to 127 decimal) to represent character information. Later ASII-8 was developed by IBM which is 8-bit code with 256 characters.

ASCII
ASCII was first published as a standard in 1968 by the American Standards Association (ASA), which later became ANSI (American National Standards Institute). There are many variations of ASCII. The first thirty-two codes (numbers 0-31 decimal) in ASCII are reserved for control characters: codes that were not originally intended to carry information, but rather to control devices (such as printers) that make use of ASCII. For example, character 10 represents the "line feed" function (which causes a printer to advance its paper), and character 27 represents the "escape" key found on the top left of common keyboards. Code 127 (all seven bits on) is another special character known as "delete". Code 32 is the "space" character, denoting the space between words, which is produced by the large space bar of a keyboard. Codes 33 to 126 are called the printable characters, which represent letters, digits, punctuation marks, and a few miscellaneous symbols.

Unicode
Unicode Standard replaced ASCII Developed by Unicode Consortium in 1991 Provides unique code for every character Supports international languages Irrespective of platform, program, language Adopted by Apple, HP, IBM, Microsoft, Oracle, SAP, Sybase, etc.

Unit 2.Essential components of Computers

Meaning of Hardware, Software, Firmware, Live-ware Hardware components in brief. Relationship between hardware and software

Unit 2.Essential components of Computers

Hardware, Software, Firmware, Live-ware
Relationship between hardware and software System Software Overview of operating system Application software

Components of Computer System

Hardware: physical components, electronic & electro mechanical components Software: set of computer programs; system software & application software
computer program: sequence of instructions written in a language that can be understood by a computer and instructs the computer to perform a task

Liveware: human beings that interact with the computers; system analysts, programmers and operators Firmware: software embedded in a hardware device that allows reading & executing the software but does not allow modification e.g., BIOS in a ROM

Hardware Components
What is an input device? Hardware used to enter data and instructions What is an output device? Hardware that conveys information to one or more people What is storage? Holds data, instructions, and information for future use Storage media Physical material on which data, instructions, and information are stored Storage device Records and retrieves items to and from storage media

Software
Software Categories: 1. System Software
1. System Management Program
1. Operating System 2. Device Drivers 3. System Utilities

2. System Development Program

1. 2. 3. 4. Programming Languages Language processors Linkers Loader

2. Application Software

System Vs. Application software

System Software Low level programs that interact with computer at low level Provide basic non-task specific functions Control the operations & extend processing capability of computer system

Application Software End user programs

User oriented programs that perform specific tasks Controlled by system software

Application Software

Application software: 1. Word-Processing Software 2. Spreadsheet Software 3. Database Software 4. Graphics Software 5. Personal Assistance Software 6. Education Software 7. Entertainment software

Application software: a set of one or more programs designed to solve a specific problem or do a specific task. e.g. inventory management, preparation of tax return, banking, hospital administration, insurance. 1. Word-Processing Software enables the user to create, edit, view, format, store, retrieve and print documents (written material such as letters, reports, books, etc.) on a computer system. 2. Spreadsheet Software a numeric data analysis tool that allows user to create a kind of computerized ledger. can hold large information and perform calculation just like calculator.

3. Database Software a set of one or more programs that enables users to create a database, maintain it (add, delete and update its records), organize its data in desired fashion and to selectively retrieve useful information from it. 4. Graphics Software used for creating, editing, viewing, storing, retrieving and printing designs, drawings, pictures, graphs and anything else that can be drawn in the traditional manner. 5. Personal Assistance Software storing and retrieving personal information, planning and managing schedules, contacts, financial and inventory of important items

6. Education Software teaching and learning tool Black-board, on-line examinations, Authoring tools, Vocabulary Builder, Mathematics, Geometry, etc 7. Entertainment software Video games, interactive television, game partner, etc.

Functions of system software

Controls all operations required to move data into and out of a computer Supports development & execution of other applications software Monitors effective use of various hardware resourcesCPU, Memory & other peripherals Communicates with & controls operation of I/O devices

System Software

Categories of system software

System Management Programs Responsible for mgt & accurate functioning of computer system Manage operations of processor, control I/O, manage storage resources, provide various support devices Include
1. Operating System 2. Device Drivers 3. System Utilities

System Development Programs Associated with development of Computer program Allow programmers to write & construct programs that OS can execute Include:
1. 2. 3. 4. Programming Languages Language processors Linkers Loader

Operating System
An operating system is a collection of programs that supervises all the operations of a computer manages resources of computer system, s.a. memory, processor, & input/output devices keeps track of status of each resource & decides who will have a control over computer resources, for how long & when acts as an interface between users & hardware of a computer system called platform, coordinates all activities among computer hardware resources booting the system: OS loaded from hard disk or floppy disk

Operating System
An operating system is made up of 3 elements: 1. Control programs: provide automatic control of the resources of a computer, like I/O, scheduling, communicating with the operator, and handling interrupts. 2. Processing programs: called (or invoked) as required by the control programs, e.g. language processors such as compilers and interpreters. 3. Data management programs: control the organisation and access of data used by application programs.

Operating System Functions

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Process management File and software management I/O and peripherals management Memory management CPU Time management Security management Command interpretation

Operating System Functions

1.Process management: creation & deletion of processes, scheduling of system resources, synchronising of processes 1.File and software management:
OS stores & retrieves files of data supports a large library of typical user programs & files retrieves the program required by the user from disk and bring it to the main memory to be used by the operator

2. I/O and peripherals management:

contains peripheral device handlers configures new devices Coordination & assignment of different I/O resources while one or more programs is being executed

Operating System Functions

3. Memory management: determine how much usable RAM a computer has decides how this RAM is used Supervises transfer of data and programs into and out of RAM 4. CPU Time management: Schedules CPU time so that it can be used effectively When the CPU is idle (e.g., during I/O operations), the operating system can give the CPU something to do.

Operating System Functions

5. Security management: provides security features which enable different users to protect their files Enforce security/confidentiality through usernames, passwords, access rights, etc. 6. Command interpretation: Interpretation of commands & instructions Coordination & assignment of compilers, assemblers, utility program & other s/w to various users of computer system

Types of OS
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Multiprogramming OS Multitasking OS Multiprocessing OS Multithreading OS Multiuser OS Real time OS

Multiprogramming Operating System interleaved execution of two or more different and independent programs by same computer processor executes each program for a very short interval of time, say, about 150 milliseconds, & then executes the next program in the queue All programs residing in main memory will be in one of the 3 states: running (using CPU), blocked (I/O operation being done) & ready (waiting for CPU) even though many programs may reside in the computer's memory at the same time, only one program is being executed (running state) at any given time.

Multiprogramming Operating system

Multiprogramming ensures maximum utilization of CPU, as its never idle For multiprogramming to work satisfactorily, large memories are required. UNIX, Windows NT, LINUX

Multi tasking Operating System

Systems capability to concurrently work on more than one task in single user systems Technically same as multi programming Term Multi programming is used for multi user systems Windows 95, 98, 2000, XP, Vista, Windows7,etc

Multiprocessing operating systems

two or more independent processors are linked together. the instructions from different programs can be processed at the same time by different processors Simultaneous execution of two or more processes Two types: Tightly coupled (single system wide primary memory shared by all processors & Loosely coupled (each processor has own local memory, geographically scattered)

 Multitasking operating system supports two or more active processes simultaneously in a single user system. Multiprogramming operating system supports multiple concurrent process & allows the instruction and data from two or more separate processes to reside in primary memory simultaneously. Multiprogramming implies multiprocessing or multitasking operation, but multitasking does not imply multiprogramming.

Multi threading OS
Basic unit of CPU utilization is a thread, also called light weight process Each thread of a process share the same address space, same global variables, same set of OS resource Resource sharing is more efficient, lesser overheads are involved. At a particular time thread can be in one of 4 states: running, blocked, ready or terminated

Multi-user operating system

allows simultaneous access to a computer system through two or more terminals associated with multiprogramming e.g., dedicated transaction processing system such as railway reservation system with hundreds of terminals under control of a single program

Real Time Operating System

used in environments where a large number of events mostly external to computer systems, must be accepted and processed in a short time or within certain deadlines. e.g. flight control, nuclear reactor control systems, real time simulations, military applications, etc. A primary objective of real-time system is to provide quick response times.

Real Time Operating System

User convenience and resource utilization are of secondary concern to real-time system. each process is assigned a certain level of priority according to the relative importance of the event processes. processor is allocated to the highest priority process among those which are ready to execute. Higher priority process usually pre-empt execution of lower priority processes (called, priority based pre- emptive scheduling)

Device Drivers
Responsible for proper functioning of devices Every hardware has a driver program for support, most OS include various h/w drivers Acts as translator b/w device & programs that use device Not independent programs, assist & are assisted by the OS for proper functioning of device

Utility Programs performs a maintenance tasks, usually related to managing system resources e.g. managing disk drive, printer and other devices Support, enhance, expand & secure existing programs & data in computer system Bundled along with OS

Utility Programs Most common utilities include: 1. Disk formatting: formatting hard disk in tracks, sectors for orderly sorting of data 2. Disk defragmenter: reorganizing files in a sequential order & release unused space so that programs run faster 3. Data Compression: squeeze out slack space generated by formatting schemes 4. Back up utility: copies selected files or entire hard disk into another storage medium 5. Data Recovery: recover files or information that is accidentally deleted 6. Disc scanner: Scanning the computer for unnecessary files such as virus and errors

System Development software

Programming Languages Language Processors Linkers Loader

Programming Languages Meaning of programming language Types of programming language

Low Level Languages and High Level Languages Low Level languages-Machine language and Assembly language.

differentiate between different types of language giving relative advantages and disadvantages Language processors assembler, compiler, interpreter distinguish between compiler and interpreter

Programming languages
Interface of programmer with a computer Series of commands which are used in development of s/w Classification 1. Machine language First generation language Understood by computer w/o using translation program Written as strings of binary 1s & 0s Converted immediately by computer circuitry into electrical signals required to execute them Each model of computer has unique machine language Advantages: fast execution of programs, no translation required Used for complex applications s.a. Space control system, nuclear reactors, chemical processing Disadvantages: machine dependent, complex language, difficult to read & understand, error prone, difficult to modify

1. Assembly language Allows instructions & storage locations to be represented by mnemonics e.g. ADD, SUB, MLT, etc Low level language, second generation language, developed by IBM in 1950s Advantages: easier to understand & use, easier to locate & correct errors, easier to modify Limitations: machine dependent, knowledge of h/w required, machine level coding 2. High level language Problem oriented instead of machine based English words & math notation 3GL (COBOL, FORTRAN, BASIC, C), 4GL (SQL, QBE), 5GL(LISP, ProLog) Advantages: readability, machine independent, easy debugging, easy documentation, faster & low cost development of programs Disadvantages: poor control on h/w, no need for h/w knowledge, less efficient, more computation time

Programming Language processors Transform instructions prepared by programmers using convenient programming language into a form that can be interpreted & executed by a computer system three categories: 1. Assembler Converts assembly language program into its equivalent machine language program

Programming Language processors 2. Compiler Converts the entire source program into object code before program is executed Reports all errors of programs along with line numbers, then program is recompiled Object program made available & compiler is no longer required memory e.g. FORTRAN, C, JAVA compilers

Programming Language processors 3. Interpreter Translate one source instruction into object code & computer immediately executes that instruction before moving on to translate next instruction Longer time for complete execution than compiled program Error can be traced exactly Unnecessary usage of memory, interpreter must be always present in the memory e.g. BASIC, LISP are interpreted language

Basis Object Code

Compiler Separate object code provided Translation Converts entire process prog into machine code at one go Debugging Slow debugging Implementation Complex programs Execution More memory required to execute Faster execution as object file saved

Interpreter No object code file Translates source code line wise Debugging easier Easier to write, less complex prog Less memory required for execution slow execution as each statement translated

Linker Links compiled module & data files to create an executable program Loader Brings an executable file (code of program) residing on disk into memory for execution Automatically invoked during program run

Acquiring software Ready to use/Prewritten software Customised Tailor made

In-house development: Outsourcing: In-house Vs. Outsourcing

Public domain software

shareware freeware

Unit 3. Information System

Meaning Need of an efficient Information System Types of Information System Information requirement for Planning, Coordination, and Control for various levels in Business, Industry. Basic of data arrangement and access

 Meaning and comparison of data, information and knowledge

Need of efficient information- accurate, timely, complete, precise & relevant Enhance value of information- form, time, place and usage utility, Types of information- strategic, tactical, operational, statutory

Meaning and Need of an efficient information System- facilitate acquisition , transformation &
distribution of efficient information, improve decision making, performance, productivity and enhance profitability,

Type of Information system

Based on decision making
Executive Support system Management information system Decision Support system Transaction Processing system office automation system expert system. Strategic level information system management level information system operational level information system knowledge level information system

Based on organizational level

Executive Support/Information System

generate strategic information and are used by the top level managers lay more emphasis on presentation of summary information, integration of internal and external information, exception reporting techniques and establish link with basic operations of the enterprise help in identifying options, evaluation of alternative scenarios and making informed choices regarding the business options.

Decision Support System

used by managers at middle level for generating tactical information DSS not only take input from TPS but from external sources They also offer tools for analyzing the information more rigorously and help in generating tactical information and performing 'what - if analysis' for managers.

Comparing Characteristics of MIS and DSS

Management Information Systems (MIS) 1. The main impact has been on structured tasks, where standard operating procedures, decision rules, and information flows can be reliably predefined. 2. The main payoff has been in improving efficiency by reducing costs, turnaround time, and so on, and by replacing clerical personnel or increasing their productivity. 3. The relevance for managers decision making has mainly been indirect (e.g., by providing reports and access to data). 4, MIS application is routine and done periodically. Decision Support Systems (DSS) 1. The impact is on decisions in which there is sufficient structure for computer and analytic aids to be of value but .where the manager's judgment is essential. 2. The payoff is in extending the range and capability of managers' decision processes to help them improve their effectiveness. 3. The relevance for managers is in the creation of a supportive tool, under their own control, that does .not attempt to automate the decision process, predefine objectives, or impose solutions. 4. DSS applications are non-routine, as needed.

Transaction Processing System (TPS)

refers to a computerized system that serve the operational level of the organization Generates operational information. At the operational level, tasks, resources, and goals are predefined and highly structured. records the daily routine transactions necessary to conduct business and one such transaction affects many databases Management Information System uses the information contained in the TPS and processes them for producing the summary reports for managers to plan and control operations. TPS is the key producer of information for other types of systems especially the functional information systems.

Expert Systems
aim at formalizing expertise and make it available for repetitive type of business decisions. use artificial intelligence tools to generate knowledge out of the information, existing theories, belief and experiences of managers in various business activities. they help human experts perform their job more effectively and replicate the expertise at various locations in the business enterprise.

Application of IS at different level of management

TOP EIS

MIDDLE

DSS AND MIS

LOWER

TPS

Expert Systems Office Automation System

Type of Information system

Functional point of view- purpose, features and cycle
Financial and accounting information system Human resource development and management system Manufacturing or production information system Marketing information system

Accounting information systems

record and report business transactions and other economic events as well as help in producing financial statements.

Marketing information system

set of procedures and practices employed in analyzing and assessing marketing information, gathered continuously from sources inside and outside of a firm

 Information requirement for Planning, Coordination, and control for various level in Business, Industry Basic of data arrangement and Access
Data arrangement and access for specific information needs Data access and their usage

Information requirement
Functions of organisation Planning Information requirement Strategic Tactical Operational Information system required ESS DSS, MIS TPS

Basics of data arrangement and Access

Data arrangement- data hierarchy (field, record, file, etc.) Data access typically refers to software and activities related to storing, retrieving, or acting on data housed in a database or other repository. There are two types of data access, sequential access and random access.