Chapter 3

Process Capability and Statistical Process Control

Lecture Outline
Basics of Statistical Process Control Control Charts Control Charts for Attributes Control Charts for Variables Control Chart Patterns SPC with Excel and OM Tools Process Capability

Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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Statistical Process Control (SPC)

Statistical Process Control
monitoring production process to detect and prevent poor quality

Sample
subset of items produced to use for inspection

Control Charts
process is within statistical control limits

Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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Process Variability
Random
inherent in a process depends on equipment and machinery, engineering, operator, and system of measurement natural occurrences

Non-Random
special causes identifiable and correctable include equipment out of adjustment, defective materials, changes in parts or materials, broken machinery or equipment, operator fatigue or poor work methods, or errors due to lack of training

Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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SPC in Quality Management

SPC uses Is the process in control? Identify problems in order to make improvements Contribute to the TQM goal of continuous improvement

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Quality Measures: Attributes and Variables

Attribute A characteristic which is evaluated with a discrete response good/bad; yes/no; correct/incorrect Variable measure A characteristic that is continuous and can be measured Weight, length, voltage, volume

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SPC Applied to Services

Nature of defects is different in services Service defect is a failure to meet customer requirements Monitor time and customer satisfaction

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SPC Applied to Services

Hospitals
timeliness & quickness of care, staff responses to requests, accuracy of lab tests, cleanliness, courtesy, accuracy of paperwork, speed of admittance & checkouts

Grocery stores
waiting time to check out, frequency of out-of-stock items, quality of food items, cleanliness, customer complaints, checkout register errors

Airlines
flight delays, lost luggage & luggage handling, waiting time at ticket counters & check-in, agent & flight attendant courtesy, accurate flight information, cabin cleanliness & maintenance

Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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SPC Applied to Services

Fast-food restaurants
waiting time for service, customer complaints, cleanliness, food quality, order accuracy, employee courtesy

Catalogue-order companies
order accuracy, operator knowledge & courtesy, packaging, delivery time, phone order waiting time

Insurance companies
billing accuracy, timeliness of claims processing, agent availability & response time

Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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Where to Use Control Charts

Process
Has a tendency to go out of control Is particularly harmful and costly if it goes out of control

Examples
At beginning of process because of waste to begin production process with bad supplies Before a costly or irreversible point, after which product is difficult to rework or correct Before and after assembly or painting operations that might cover defects Before the outgoing final product or service is delivered

Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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Control Charts
A graph that monitors process quality Control limits
upper and lower bands of a control chart

Attributes chart
p-chart c-chart

Variables chart
mean (x bar chart) range (R-chart)

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Process Control Chart

Out of control Upper control limit Process average Lower control limit

10

Sample number

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Normal Distribution
Probabilities for Z= 2.00 and Z = 3.00

95% 99.74% -3 -2 -1 =0 1 2 3

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A Process Is in Control If
1. no sample points outside limits 2. most points near process average 3. about equal number of points above and below centerline 4. points appear randomly distributed

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Control Charts for Attributes

p-chart
uses portion defective in a sample

c-chart
uses number of defects (non-conformities) in a sample

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p-Chart
UCL = p + zp LCL = p - zp
z p p = number of standard deviations from process average = sample proportion defective; estimates process mean = standard deviation of sample proportion p(1 - p)
p = n

Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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Construction of p-Chart
SAMPLE # NUMBER OF DEFECTIVES PROPORTION DEFECTIVE

1 2 3 : : 20

6 0 4 : : 18 200

.06 .00 .04 : : .18

20 samples of 100 pairs of jeans

Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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Construction of p-Chart
p=
total defectives total sample observations = 200 / 20(100) = 0.10 0.10(1 - 0.10) 100

UCL = p + z UCL = 0.190 LCL = p - z LCL = 0.010

p(1 - p) = 0.10 + 3 n

p(1 - p) = 0.10 - 3 n

0.10(1 - 0.10) 100

Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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Construction of p-Chart
0.20 0.18 0.16 Proportion defective 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 2 LCL = 0.010 4 6 8 10 12 Sample number 14 16 18 20 p = 0.10 UCL = 0.190

Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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p-Chart in Excel
Click on Insert then Charts to construct control chart I4 + 3*SQRT(I4*(1-I4)/100) I4 - 3*SQRT(I4*(1-I4)/100)

Column values copied from I5 and I6

Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 3-20

c-Chart
UCL = c + zc LCL = c - zc
where c = number of defects per sample

c =

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c-Chart
Number of defects in 15 sample rooms
SAMPLE NUMBER OF DEFECTS

1 2 3

12 8 16

c=

190 = 12.67 15 12.67

: :
15

: :
15 190

UCL = c + zc = 12.67 + 3 = 23.35 LCL = c - zc = 12.67 - 3 = 1.99

12.67

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c-Chart
24 UCL = 23.35 21 18 15 12 9 6 3 LCL = 1.99

Number of defects

c = 12.67

10

12

14

16

Sample number

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Control Charts for Variables

Range chart ( R-Chart )
Plot sample range (variability)

Mean chart ( x -Chart )

Plot sample averages

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x-bar Chart: Known

= UCL = x + z x= LCL = x - z x - + x + ... + x x1 - 2 k k = process standard deviation x = standard deviation of sample means =/ n k = number of samples (subgroups) n = sample size (number of observations) Where = X=

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x-bar Chart Example: Known

Observations(Slip-Ring Diameter, cm) n Sample k 1 2 3 4 5

We know = .08
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x-bar Chart Example: Known

= 50.09 X = _____ = 5.01 10 = UCL = x + z x = 5.01 + 3(.08 / 10) = 5.09 = LCL = x - z x= 5.01 - 3(.08 / 10) = 4.93

Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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x-bar Chart Example: Unknown

UCL = x + A2R
where = x = average of the sample means _ R = average range value = _

LCL = x - A2R

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Control Chart Factors

Sample Size n 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Factor for X-chart A2 1.880 1.023 0.729 0.577 0.483 0.419 0.373 0.337 0.308 0.285 0.266 0.249 0.235 0.223 0.212 0.203 0.194 0.187 0.180 0.173 0.167 0.162 0.157 0.153 D3 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.076 0.136 0.184 0.223 0.256 0.283 0.307 0.328 0.347 0.363 0.378 0.391 0.404 0.415 0.425 0.435 0.443 0.452 0.459 D4 3.267 2.575 2.282 2.114 2.004 1.924 1.864 1.816 1.777 1.744 1.717 1.693 1.672 1.653 1.637 1.622 1.609 1.596 1.585 1.575 1.565 1.557 1.548 1.541

Factors for R-chart

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x-bar Chart Example: Unknown

OBSERVATIONS (SLIP- RING DIAMETER, CM) SAMPLE k 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 5.02 5.01 4.99 5.03 4.95 4.97 5.05 5.09 5.14 5.01 2 5.01 5.03 5.00 4.91 4.92 5.06 5.01 5.10 5.10 4.98 3 4.94 5.07 4.93 5.01 5.03 5.06 5.10 5.00 4.99 5.08 4 4.99 4.95 4.92 4.98 5.05 4.96 4.96 4.99 5.08 5.07 5 4.96 4.96 4.99 4.89 5.01 5.03 4.99 5.08 5.09 4.99 x 4.98 5.00 4.97 4.96 4.99 5.01 5.02 5.05 5.08 5.03 R 0.08 0.12 0.08 0.14 0.13 0.10 0.14 0.11 0.15 0.10

Totals 50.09 1.15

Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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x-bar Chart Example: Unknown

_ R= R ____ = k 1.15 ____ 10 = 0.115

x 50.09 = = ___ = _____ = 5.01 cm x 10 k _ = UCL = x + A2R = 5.01 + (0.58)(0.115) = 5.08

LCL = x - A2R = 5.01 - (0.58)(0.115) = 4.94

Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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x- bar Chart Example

Mean

5.10 5.08 5.06 5.04 5.02 5.00 4.98 4.96 4.94 4.92 | 1 | 2 | 3 | | | | 4 5 6 7 Sample number | 8 | 9 | 10 LCL = 4.94 = = 5.01 x UCL = 5.08

Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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R- Chart
UCL = D4R R= R k LCL = D3R

Where R = range of each sample k = number of samples (sub groups)

Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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R-Chart Example
OBSERVATIONS (SLIP- RING DIAMETER, CM) SAMPLE k 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 5.02 5.01 4.99 5.03 4.95 4.97 5.05 5.09 5.14 5.01 2 5.01 5.03 5.00 4.91 4.92 5.06 5.01 5.10 5.10 4.98 3 4.94 5.07 4.93 5.01 5.03 5.06 5.10 5.00 4.99 5.08 4 4.99 4.95 4.92 4.98 5.05 4.96 4.96 4.99 5.08 5.07 5 4.96 4.96 4.99 4.89 5.01 5.03 4.99 5.08 5.09 4.99 x 4.98 5.00 4.97 4.96 4.99 5.01 5.02 5.05 5.08 5.03 R 0.08 0.12 0.08 0.14 0.13 0.10 0.14 0.11 0.15 0.10

Totals 50.09 1.15

Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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R-Chart Example
_ UCL = D4R = 2.11(0.115) = 0.243 _ LCL = D3R = 0(0.115) = 0 Retrieve chart factors D3 and D4

Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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R-Chart Example
0.28 0.24 0.20 Range 0.16 0.12 0.08 0.04 0 LCL = 0 | | | 1 2 3 | | | | 4 5 6 7 Sample number | 8 | 9 | 10 R = 0.115 UCL = 0.243

Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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X-bar and R charts Excel & OM Tools

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Using x- bar and R-Charts Together

Process average and process variability must be in control Samples can have very narrow ranges, but sample averages might be beyond control limits Or, sample averages may be in control, but ranges might be out of control An R-chart might show a distinct downward trend, suggesting some nonrandom cause is reducing variation

Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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Control Chart Patterns

Run
sequence of sample values that display same characteristic

Pattern test
determines if observations within limits of a control chart display a nonrandom pattern

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Control Chart Patterns

To identify a pattern look for:
8 consecutive points on one side of the center line 8 consecutive points up or down 14 points alternating up or down 2 out of 3 consecutive points in zone A (on one side of center line) 4 out of 5 consecutive points in zone A or B (on one side of center line)

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Control Chart Patterns

UCL UCL

LCL Sample observations consistently below the center line

LCL Sample observations consistently above the center line

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Control Chart Patterns

UCL UCL

LCL Sample observations consistently increasing

LCL Sample observations consistently decreasing

Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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Zones for Pattern Tests

UCL Zone A Zone B
= 1 sigma = x + 1 (A2R) 3 = 3 sigma = x + A2R = 2 sigma = x + 2 (A2R) 3

Process average

Zone C Zone C Zone B

= x = 1 sigma = x - 1 (A2R) 3 = 2 sigma = x - 2 (A2R) 3

Zone A LCL
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13

= 3 sigma = x - A2R

Sample number
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Performing a Pattern Test

SAMPLE 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x 4.98 5.00 4.95 4.96 4.99 5.01 5.02 5.05 5.08 5.03 ABOVE/BELOW B B B B B A A A A UP/DOWN U D D U U U U U D ZONE B C A A C C C B A B

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Sample Size Determination

Attribute charts require larger sample sizes 50 to 100 parts in a sample Variable charts require smaller samples 2 to 10 parts in a sample

Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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Process Capability
Compare natural variability to design variability Natural variability What we measure with control charts Process mean = 8.80 oz, Std dev. = 0.12 oz Tolerances Design specifications reflecting product requirements Net weight = 9.0 oz 0.5 oz Tolerances are 0.5 oz

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Process Capability

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Process Capability

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Process Capability Ratio

Cp = = tolerance range process range upper spec limit - lower spec limit 6

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Computing Cp

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Process Capability Index

= x - lower specification limit 3

Cpk = minimum

= upper specification limit - x 3

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Computing Cpk
Net weight specification = 9.0 oz 0.5 oz Process mean = 8.80 oz Process standard deviation = 0.12 oz
= x - lower specification limit , 3 = upper specification limit - x 3 8.80 - 8.50 9.50 - 8.80 , = 0.83 3(0.12) 3(0.12)

Cpk = minimum

= minimum

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Process Capability With Excel

=(D6-D7)/(6*D8)

See formula bar

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Process Capability With OM Tools

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