Chapter 1: Organization of the Body

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SCIENCE AND SOCIETY

Science involves logical inquiry based on experimentation (Figure 1-1)

Hypothesis: idea or principle to be tested in experiments Experiment: series of tests of a hypothesis; a controlled experiment eliminates biases or outside influences Theory: a hypothesis that has been proved by experiments to have a high degree of confidence Law: a theory that has an unusually high level of confidence

The process of science is active and changing as new experiments add new knowledge Science is affected by culture and culture is affected by society

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Anatomy and physiology are branches of biology concerned with the form and functions of the body Anatomy: science of the structure of an organism and the relations of its parts

Gross anatomy: study of the body and its parts that relies only on what the eye can see as a tool for observation (Figure 1-2)

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY (cont.)

Microscopic anatomy: study of body parts with a microscope

Cytology: study of cells Histology: study of tissues

Developmental anatomy: study of human growth and development Pathological anatomy: study of diseased body structures Systemic anatomy: study of the body by systems
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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY (cont.)

Physiology: science of the functions of organisms; subdivisions named by:

Organism involved: human or plant physiology Organizational level: molecular or cellular physiology Systemic function: respiratory physiology, neurophysiology, or cardiovascular physiology

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LANGUAGE OF SCIENCE AND MEDICINE

Scientific terms are often based on Latin or Greek word parts A terminology tool is provided in the pull-out section near the front of this textbook Terminologia Anatomica (TA) and Terminologia Histologica (TH)

Official lists of anatomical terms (TA, gross anatomy; TH, microscopic anatomy) Terms listed in Latin, in English, and by number Avoids use of eponyms (terms based on a persons name)

Physiology terms do not have an official list but follow the same principles as TA and TH

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CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE

A single criterion may be adequate to describe life, such as:

Autopoiesis: living organisms are self-organized and selfmaintaining Cell theory: if the entity is made of one or more cells, it is alive

Characteristics of life considered most important in human beings are summarized in Table 1-1 Metabolism: sum total of all physical and chemical reactions occurring in the living body

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LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION

Chemical level: basis for life (Figure 1-3)

Organization of chemical structures separates living material from nonliving material Organization of atoms, molecules, and macromolecules results in living mattera gel called cytoplasm Chemical structures organized to form organelles that perform individual functions Functions of the organelles allow the cell to live Dozens of organelles have been identified, including: Mitochondria Golgi apparatus Endoplasmic reticulum

Organelle level

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LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION (cont.)

Cellular level

Cells: smallest and most numerous units that possess and exhibit characteristics of life Each cell has a nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm within a limiting membrane Cells differentiate to perform unique functions

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LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION (cont.)

Tissue level

Tissue: an organization of similar cells specialized to perform a certain function Tissue cells are surrounded by nonliving matrix Four major tissue types Epithelial Connective Muscle Nervous

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LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION (cont.)

Organ level

Organ: organization of several different kinds of tissues to perform a specific function Organs represent discrete and functionally complex operational units Each organ has a unique size, shape, appearance, and placement in the body

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LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION (cont.)

System level

Systems: most complex organizational units of the body System level involves varying numbers and kinds of organs arranged to perform complex functions (Table 12): Support and movement Communication, control, and integration Transportation and defense Respiration, nutrition, and excretion Reproduction and development

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LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION (cont.)

Organism level

The living human organism is greater than the sum of its parts All the components interact to allow the human being to survive and flourish

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ANATOMICAL POSITION

Reference position (Figure 1-4) Body erect with arms at sides and palms forward Head and feet pointing forward

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ANATOMICAL POSITION (cont.)

Bilateral symmetry: a term meaning that right and left sides of the body are mirror images

Bilateral symmetry confers balanced proportions Remarkable correspondence of size and shape between body parts on opposite sides of the body Ipsilateral structures are on the same side of the body in anatomical position Contralateral structures are on opposite sides of the body in anatomical position

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BODY CAVITIES

Ventral body cavity (Figure 1-5; Table 1-3)

Thoracic cavity Right and left pleural cavities Mediastinum Abdominopelvic cavity Abdominal cavity Pelvic cavity
Cranial cavity Spinal cavity

Dorsal body cavity

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BODY REGIONS

Axial subdivision (Figure 1-6; Table 1-4)

Head Neck Torso, or trunk, and its subdivisions Upper extremity and subdivisions Lower extremity and subdivisions

Appendicular subdivision

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BODY REGIONS (cont.)

Abdominal regions (Figure 1-7)

Right hypochondriac region Epigastric region Left hypochondriac region Right lumbar region Umbilical region Left lumbar region Right iliac (inguinal) region Hypogastric region Left iliac (inguinal) region

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BODY REGIONS (cont.)

Abdominopelvic quadrants (Figure 1-8)

Right upper quadrant Left upper quadrant Right lower quadrant Left lower quadrant

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TERMS DESCRIBING BODY STRUCTURE

Directional terms (Figure 1-9)

Superior and inferior Anterior (ventral) and posterior (dorsal) Medial and lateral Proximal and distal Superficial and deep

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TERMS DESCRIBING BODY STRUCTURE (cont.)

Terms related to organs

Lumen (luminal) Central and peripheral Medullary (medulla) and cortical (cortex) Apical (apex) and basal (base)

Many directional terms are listed inside the front cover of the textbook

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BODY PLANES AND SECTIONS

Planes are lines of orientation along which cuts or sections can be made to divide the body, or a body part, into smaller pieces (Figures 1-9 and 110) The three major planes lie at right angles to each other

Sagittal plane runs front to back; sections through this plane divide the body (or body part) into right and left sides If section divides the body (or part) into symmetrical right
and left halves, the plane is called midsagittal or median sagittal

Frontal (coronal) plane runs lengthwise (side to side) and divides the body (or part) into anterior and posterior portions Transverse (horizontal) plane is a crosswise plane that divides the body (or part) into upper and lower parts
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INTERACTION OF STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Complementarity of structure and function is an important and unifying concept in the study of anatomy and physiology Anatomical structures often seem designed to perform specific functions because of their unique size, shape, form, or body location Understanding the interaction of structure and function helps integrate otherwise isolated factual information

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HOMEOSTASIS

Term homeostasis coined by American physiologist Walter B. Cannon Homeostasis is used to describe the relatively constant states maintained by the body; internal environment around body cells remains constant (Figure 1-13) Body adjusts important variables from a normal set point in an acceptable or normal range Examples of homeostasis:

Temperature regulation Regulation of blood carbon dioxide level Regulation of blood glucose level

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HOMEOSTATIC CONTROL MECHANISMS

Devices for maintaining or restoring homeostasis by selfregulation through feedback control loops Basic components of control mechanisms

Sensor mechanism: specific sensors detect and react to any changes from normal Integrating, or control, center: information is analyzed and integrated; if needed, a specific action is then initiated Effector mechanism: effectors directly influence controlled physiological variables Feedback: process of information about a variable constantly flowing back from the sensor to the integrator

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HOMEOSTATIC CONTROL MECHANISMS (cont.)

Negative feedback control systems

Are inhibitory Stabilize physiological variables Produce an action opposite to the change that activated the system Are responsible for maintaining homeostasis Are much more common than positive feedback control systems

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HOMEOSTATIC CONTROL MECHANISMS (cont.)

Positive feedback control systems

Are stimulatory Amplify or reinforce the change that is occurring Tend to produce destabilizing effects and disrupt homeostasis Bring specific body functions to swift completion

Feed-forward control systems occur when information flows ahead to another process or feedback loop to trigger a change in anticipation of an event that will follow

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HOMEOSTATIC CONTROL MECHANISMS (cont.)

Levels of control (Figure 1-14)

Intracellular control Regulation within cells Genes or enzymes can regulate cell processes Intrinsic control (autoregulation) Regulation within tissues or organs May involve chemical signals May involve other built in mechanisms Extrinsic control Regulation from organ to organ May involve nerve signals May involve endocrine signals (hormones)

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CYCLE OF LIFE: LIFE SPAN CONSIDERATIONS

Structure and function of body undergo changes over the early years (developmental processes) and late years (aging processes) Infancy and old age are periods when the body functions least well Young adulthood is the period of greatest homeostatic efficiency Atrophy: term to describe the wasting effects of advancing age

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