CHRONIC TRAINING ADAPTATIONS

KEY KNOWLEDGE: Chronic adaptations of the cardiovascular, respiratory and muscular systems to training. KEY SKILLS: Explain how chronic adaptations to the cardiovascular, respiratory and muscular systems lead to improved performance.

CHRONIC TRAINING ADAPTATIONS WHAT IS CHRONIC ADAPTATION?

Changes that occur as a physiological response to the increased physical demands placed on the body through training. Training effects (adaptations) are specific to the training undertaken i.e. Changes that occur to the cv, respiratory and muscular systems, is determined by the training methods selected and adherence to the training principles. Adaptations will not occur after one or two training sessions. Training programs need to be tailored to the specific demands of the activity and needs of the athlete.

CHRONIC TRAINING ADAPTATIONS

TRAINING ADAPTATIONS

TRAINING METHODS plyometrics, resistance, interval, circuit, sprint, continuous, fartlek, flexibility

SAID (Specific Adaptation Imposed Demands)

Cardiovascular Respiratory muscular

Application of training principles

Energy systems improvements

ADAPTATION a long-term physiological change in response to training that allows new demands to be met PLATEAU commonly occurs when the body adjusts to new loads and maintenance of existing conditions prevails HYPERTROPHY an increase in cell size that usually leads to increased tissue size as well

Principle of Adaptation
Training should be; Specific to their sport Specific to the desired outcome as a result of adaptations. Adaptations occur as a result of physical training principles. Stress on the body causes adaptations. A plateau occurs when the training load is not sufficient to cause stress. Aerobic and anaerobic training methods create different physiological adaptations.

Adaptations
These changes or adaptations in the body is specific to the training method/s applied Adaptation = a long-term physiological change in response to training loads that allows the body to meet new demands. If training load is insufficient to stress the body, no adaptations occur and a plateau will occur. Athletes train to adapt their bodies to a particular sport/activity.

Types of Adaptations
Adaptations can be classified as acute and chronic; Acute Immediate physiological response to exercise which last the duration of the exercise session. Type of training not important. Chronic Long-term adaptations to exercise.

In this chapter, we will focus on chronic changes.

Aerobic Energy System Adaptations

The minimum period for chronic adaptations to occur with aerobic endurance training is 6 weeks, although they are more evident after 12 weeks. Adaptations that occur to the CV, respiratory and muscular system, primarily improves the efficiency of O2 delivery and use by the working muscles. A side benefit of maintaining a good level of aerobic endurance/fitness, is it helps to significantly reduce the chances of suffering from cardiovascular disease and other health related problems associated with a sedentary lifestyle.

Aerobic Adaptations cont

Aerobic training results in a greater improvement in slow-twitch muscle fibres and conversely anaerobic training results in a greater improvement in fast-twitch fibres Adaptations are reversible = detraining. Detraining occurs more quickly than the time it took for the adaptations to accumulate/occur

Anaerobic Energy System Adaptations

Training the ATP-PC and lactic acid systems cause; Increased levels of anaerobic enzymes and fuels Increase in glycolytic capacity Improvements at the muscular level in both systems

Anaerobic Energy System Adaptations

The minimum period for chronic adaptations to occur with anaerobic training is 6 weeks. The greatest adaptations occur to the MUSCULAR SYSTEM. Some changes do take place in the cardiovascular system. Adaptations through anaerobic energy system are designed to bring about increased muscular size, enabling greater strength, power and speed. Adaptations at the cellular level also improves anaerobic energy production Training methods including short and intermediate interval training, plyometric training, circuit training, resistance training (strength, power and LME) The type and degree of change is dependent upon training methods and application of training principles.

Muscular Training Adaptations

Athletes need to use specific training methods to cause muscular adaptations for their sport. Aerobic Trains the slow twitch (Type I) fibres. Anaerobic Trains fast twitch (Type II) fibres. Note fast twitch 2 types FT b Anaerobic FT a Partially aerobicFT a can take on ST characteristics if trained. Our fibre type and composition of each is genetically inherited.

SELECTED TRAINING ADAPTIONS

Chronic cardiovascular, respiratory and muscular training adaptations
Cardiovascular Respiratory Muscular-Aerobic Muscular-Anaerobic

Resting heart rate

Tidal volume

Oxidative enzymes

Glycolytic enzyme capacity

Systolic blood pressure

Ventilatory efficiency

Mitochondria size and number = increased density Capillary density

ATP, PC and glycogen stores

Submaximal heart rate

Lung capacity/ volumes

Contractile proteins

Capillary density & vessel elasticity

Aerobic capacity

Triglyceride stores

Buffering against lactic acid LA tolerance

Adaptations are Reversible

Adaptations are reduced and then lost after stopping regular training. The reversibility principle applies when an athlete becomes inactive. As a result, athletes need to undertake a vigorous pre-season months before the in-season starts. Therefore maintenance in the off-season is required to minimise reversing the adaptations.

CHRONIC CARDIOVASCULAR ADAPTATIONS AS A RESULT OF AEROBIC TRAINING

CARDIOVASCULAR ADAPTATIONS
Changes that occur to the structure and function of the heart, blood vessels and the blood THE HEART (INCREASED LEFT VENTRICLE SIZE & VOLUME) The heart is a muscle, and like any other muscle, will become bigger and stronger due to training. The nature and degree of change is dependent upon the type of training. Aerobic training results in HYPERTROPHY (increase in size) of the heart specifically the LEFT VENTRICLE due to:
1. Increase size of the left ventricular cavity 2. Thickening of the left ventricular wall

UNTRAINED HEART

TRAINED HEART

An increase in ventricle size; an adaptation of AEROBIC training

CHRONIC CARDIOVASCULAR ADAPTATIONS AS A RESULT OF AEROBIC TRAINING

THE LEFT VENTRICLE Cont Increased size in the left ventricle cavity and thickness of the left ventricular wall will result in the following changes at rest
1. Increased STROKE VOLUME 2. Decreased HEART RATE

Endurance athletes have very low resting heart rates

UN-TRAINED ATHLETES Women: 60-65 BPM Men: 56-60 BPM ENDURANCE ATHLETES Women: 55-60 BPM Men: 50-55 BPM

Cardiac changes to VENTRICLE SIZE and THICKNESS resulting from different training regimes

Anaerobic training increases ventricle wall thickness

Reference Aerobic training increases subject ventricle size and (no training effect) small increase to wall thickness

CHRONIC CARDIOVASCULAR ADAPTATIONS AS A RESULT OF AEROBIC TRAINING

INCREASED CAPILLARISATION OF THE HEART Cardiac hypertrophy also leads to an increase in the CAPILLARISATION (increase in the number of capillaries feeding the heart muscle) of the heart muscle. Increased supply of blood and O2 allows the heart to beat more strongly and efficiently both at rest and during exercise. INCREASED STROKE VOLUME Hypertrophy of the heart leads to significant increase in the hearts SV at rest, during sub-maximal and maximal workloads.
Stroke Volumes UNTRAINED Athlete REST: 70-80ml/per beat MAXIMAL EXERCISE: 110ml/per beat Stroke Volumes TRAINED Athlete REST: 100ml + /per beat MAXIMAL EXERCISE: 130ml/per beat

CORONARY ARTERIES

Note the extensive capillarisation about the two coronary arteries after a long term AEROBIC training program

CHRONIC CARDIOVASCULAR ADAPTATIONS AS A RESULT OF AEROBIC TRAINING

DECREASED RESTING HEART RATE The amount of O2 consumed at rest for an aerobically trained or untrained individual does not vary. It takes about 5 litres/min to circulate sufficient amounts of blood around the body, to supply adequate amounts of O2 to all the cells of the body. If SV in an aerobically fit athlete is greater than an untrained person, the heart does not have to pump as frequently, thus there is a corresponding reduction in heart rate per minute.
Cardiac Output for Aerobically Untrained Athlete Q = SV X HR 5L/min= 70ml/beat X 71 beats/min Cardiac Output for Aerobically Trained Athlete Q = SV X HR 5L/min = 100ml/beat X 50 beats/min

CHRONIC CARDIOVASCULAR ADAPTATIONS AS A RESULT OF AEROBIC TRAINING

DECREASED HEART RATE DURING SUB-MAXIMAL EXERCISE As a result of increased SV, aerobically trained athletes have lower heart rates during sub-maximal workloads In aerobically trained athletes, there is also a slower increase in heart rate during exercise. A lower but faster attainment of a steady state also occurs in aerobically fit individuals. INCREASED HEART RATE RECOVERY RATES The heart rate of trained athletes, will return faster to resting levels, due to more efficient cardiovascular systems. INCREASED CARDIAC OUPUT DURING MAXIMAL EXERCISE Primarily as a result of SV efficiencies, Q in trained athletes is much higher. (Max Heart rate level is finite: 220-age)

CHRONIC CARDIOVASCULAR ADAPTATIONS AS A RESULT OF AEROBIC TRAINING

INCREASED ARTERIOVENOUS O2 DIFFERENCE Aerobically trained individuals are able to absorb more 02 into the working muscles than untrained individuals, both during sub-maximal and maximal exercise, thus a greater arterio-venous O2 difference This is primarily a result of increased concentrations of myoglobin* and mitochondria* found within muscles cells INCREASED BLOOD VOLUME AND HAEMOGLOBIN LEVELS Regular sustained aerobic training can increase blood volume levels by up to 25%.

A corresponding increase of haemoglobin* levels thus increasing the capacity to carry greater amounts of O2 to working muscles. More blood, greater SV More blood greater capacity to remove heat from the body

CHRONIC CARDIOVASCULAR ADAPTATIONS AS A RESULT OF AEROBIC TRAINING

INCREASED CAPILLARISATION OF SKELETAL MUSCLES Sustained endurance training can increase the number of capillaries supplying each muscle fibre from 4.4 to 5.9. More capillaries means:
More blood flow to the working muscles More O2/nutrients to working muscles Greater capacity for the removal of waste bi-products

DECREASED BLOOD CHOLESTEROL, TRIGLYCERIDES AND LOW AND DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS Regular aerobic training may result in reduced blood cholesterol levels (triglycerides and low density lipoproteins* LDL), but may also result in increases in high density lipoproteins*HDL. BOTH training effects thought to reduce the chance of developing coronary heart disease.

CHRONIC CARDIOVASCULAR ADAPTATIONS AS A RESULT OF AEROBIC TRAINING

DECREASES IN BLOOD LACTATE Blood lactate has been shown to DECREASE with aerobic training, thus enabling endurance athletes with the capacity to exercise at high intensities before the LIP is reached. This is a result of improved lactate removal and delayed lactate production.

CHRONIC CARDIOVASCULAR ADAPTATIONS AS A RESULT OF AEROBIC TRAINING

Blood Pressure
Systolic Blood Pressure Pressure on the arteries following contraction of ventricles as blood is pumped out of the heart

Diastolic Blood Pressure Pressure in the arteries when the heart relaxes and ventricles fill with blood

The greatest changes occur with the systolic pressure. This is a direct result of: 1. Improved capillarisation 2.Improved elasticity of blood vessels 3.ed HDLs (high-density lipoproteins, breaking down fatty deposits/plaque built on inside of arterial walls)

People with high Blood pressure place a high stress on the cardiovascular system

Aerobic Training vs. Cardiovascular Adaptations

Heart
ventricle size (chamber and walls) stroke volume (SV) cardiac output (Q) rest & sub-max heart rates steady state heart rate recovery heart rates

CHRONIC CARDIOVASCULAR ADAPTATIONS AS A RESULT OF AEROBIC TRAINING

Blood Vessels
capillary density to heart muscle blood flow (20%) away from organs to working muscles capillary density at muscles, mainly S/Twitch fibres

Blood
blood volume plasma levels red blood cell (RBC) count Haemoglobin blood pressure (rest & sub-max)

Typical metabolic and physiological values for healthy trained and untrained men
Variable Glycogen (nM) Mitochondria Volume (% muscle cell)
Resting ATP (mM) Resting PC (mM) Aerobic enzymesSuccinate dehydrogenase (mM) Max lactate (mM) Max stroke volume (mL) Max cardiac output (L/min) Resting heart rate (bpm) VO2 max (mL/kg/min) Blood volume (L)

Untrained 85.0 2.15

3 11 5-10 110 120 20 70 30-40 4.7

Trained 120 8
6 18 15-20 150 180 30-40 40 65-80 6

% difference 41 272
100 64 133 36 50 75 -43 107 28

Aerobic training adaptations include increased capacities to use fat during exercise in preference to carbohydrate (glycogen sparing)
Energy from Carbohydrate (kcal) Before training

After training Energy from fat (kcal)

Total energy (kcal)

CARDIOVASCULAR ADAPTATIONS RESULTING FROM AEROBIC TRAINING, WHICH BRING ABOUT IMPROVED OXYGEN DELIVERY TO WORKING MUSCLES

Plasma volume

Ventricle size
Total blood volume Venous return Myocardial contractility Maximum stroke volume Maximum cardiac output

Haemoglobin

Increased effectiveness of cardiac output distribution

Increased peripheral blood flow

O2 O2 O2 O2 O2 O2 O2 O2 Capillarisation Arteriovenous oxygen difference Increased blood flow to working muscles

O2 O2
O2

Comparative average cardiac dimensions in normal subjects, college athletes and world-class athletes
Variable Normals College College swimmers runners Worldclass runners College wrestlers Worldclass shot putters

Left ventricle volume (mL) Stroke volume (mL) Left ventricle wall thickness (mm) Left ventricle mass (g)

101 70 10.3 211

181 128 10.6 308

154 113 10.8 283

160 116 11.3 302

110 75 13.5 330

122 68 13.7 348

CHRONIC RESPIRATORY ADAPTATIONS AS A RESULT OF AEROBIC TRAINING Aerobic Training vs. Respiratory Adaptations
lung / vital capacity: the volume of air that can be forcefully expired after maximum inspiration. Total lung capacity: The amount of air inside the lungs after a maximal inspiration tidal volume: the amount of air breathed in or out of the lungs per breath Alveolar capillirisation more capillares surrounding alveoli pulmonary diffusion: the amount of O2 and CO2 which moves between the capillaries and the alveoli (increases due to increased capilliarisation surrounding alveoli) ventilation (max intensity) primarily as a result of improved TV) ventilatory efficiency (the ease of O2 extraction of muscles responsible for breathing/once again a direct link to increases in capillirisation). ventilation (rest & sub-max) oxygen cost to ventilatory muscles (intercostals & diaphragm)

Respiratory Training Adaptations

Decreased minute ventilation- Lungs become more efficient as a result of training. Ventilation is therefore reduced at sub-maximal workloads. Increased pulmonary diffusion oxygen is more readily extracted from the alveoli Increased tidal volume (Amount of air inspired and expired during breathing)
Ventilatory musculature Muscles responsible for breathing require less oxygen. Improved lung function due to improved lung volume and alveolar capacity surface area. Aerobic capacity Improves due to an increase in oxygen supply to the working muscles.

CHRONIC MUSCULAR ADAPTATIONS AS A RESULT OF AEROBIC TRAINING Aerobic Training vs. Muscular Adaptations
Aerobic training will bring about most specific and significant adaptations to slow

twitch muscle fibres.

MUSCULAR ADAPTATIONS FROM AEROBIC TRAINING

Oxidative enzymes Myoglobin content Mitochondria size, number & surface area Capillary density Arteriovenous oxygen difference Triglyceride stores Oxidation of fats Muscle glycogen stores & Oxidation of glycogen

CHRONIC MUSCULAR ADAPTATIONS AS A RESULT OF AEROBIC TRAINING

Continuous , fartlek and long interval training are the training methods that will best produce chronic muscular aerobic training adaptations. MUSCULAR ADAPTATIONS FROM AEROBIC TRAINING
Oxidative Enzymes: increases in these enzymes responsible for increased metabolism (breakdown) of stored glycogen and triglycerides. Mitochondria: an increase in the SIZE & NUMBER of this structure found within muscles cells, responsible for the oxidization of energy stores to produce ATP Myoglobin: increases in the protein found inside muscle cells responsible for the transportation of O2 to mitochondria. Muscular Capillary Density: increased number of capillaries surrounding slow twitch muscle fibres, increases O2 supplies to muscles and therefore increased O2 extraction.

The increased arteriovenous oxygen difference results from: more blood being pumped to active muscles (especially slowtwitch fibres) muscle fibres being better able to extract transported oxygen as a results of increased mitochondria, more oxidative enzymes and increased myoglobin

Oxygen extraction: a-V02 difference

a-V02 difference = Arteriovenous oxygen
difference:
difference in oxygen consumption when comparing that in the arterioles to the venules, and an indirect measure of how much oxygen muscles are using

An in a-V02 difference results in

More blood being pumped to active muscles (especially slow-twitch) Muscle fibres better at extracting and processing oxygen as a result of ed

mitochondria numbers, more oxidative enzymes and ed levels of myoglobin.

All of this is due to the oxygen demands of the muscles

Aerobic (Muscular)
Increased myoglobin stores. Increased muscular fuel stores ie.Glycogen, fatty acids, triglycerides and oxidative enzymes. Increased capillary density to slow twitch fibres. Increased use of fat at submaximal levels. Increased oxygen utilisation Increased size and number and density of mitochondria Increased stores and use of intramuscular triglycerides. Increased oxidation of glucose and fats Ability to metabolise and extract energy has improved. The body can therefore use glycogen sparing. Decreased use of lactic acid system Some muscle fibre adaptation.

CHRONIC MUSCULAR ADAPTATIONS AS A RESULT OF AEROBIC TRAINING

MUSCULAR ADAPTATIONS FROM AEROBIC TRAINING Cont INCREASED STORAGE OF GLYCOGEN & FATS Aerobic training increases the capacity of muscle tissue/cells to store greater quantities of glycogen and stored fats. The combination of increases in oxidative enzymes, mitochondria numbers/sizes, myoglobin levels, muscular capilliarisation and stored energy levels increases the capacity of muscle cells to aerobically produce greater quantities of ATP. The increased storage and oxidisation of FATS, delays the use of glycogen stores and thus increases endurance capabilities.

Rapid aerobic training adaptations during initial stages of VO2 max, followed by smaller increases and plateaus over a two-year period
Elite

VO2 max (mL/kg/min)

Months of training

Heart rate and oxygen consumption for endurancetrained athletes and sedentary college-aged students before and after 55 days of aerobic training

Endurance trained athletes

Heart rate (b/min)

Sedentary college students Sedentary college students after 55 days of aerobic training

Oxygen consumption (L/min)

During exercise, more blood is sent to working muscles and less to other organs

Skeletal muscle Blood flow (% cardiac Output)

Other organs

Exercise time (minutes)

Aerobic training contributes to improved oxygen extraction from blood and increased a-VO2 diff.

Trained
Untrained

Arteriovenous Oxygen Difference (vol%)

Exercise time (minutes)

Components of the oxygen transport system at rest and during maximal exercise for trained and untrained subjects and endurance athletes
Condition
1 Untrained Rest

VO2 (mL/L)

Stroke volume (L/beat)

Heart-rate (beats/min)

A-VO2 diff. (mL/min)

300

0.075

82

48.8

Maximal exercise
2 Trained Rest Maximal exercise 3 Endurance athlete Rest Maximal exercise

3100
300 3440 302 5570

0.112
0.105 0.126 0.122 0.189

200
58 192 50 190

138.0
49.3 140.5 49.5 155.0

CHRONIC ADAPTATIONS TO ANAEROBIC TRAINING

Anaerobic training effects are best developed through the following training methods: 1. Sprint training 2. Resistance training 3. Short and Intermediate Interval training What energy system(s) are being 4. Plyometric training used? What would be the intensity of the 5. Circuit training training?
The greatest adaptations occur at the muscular system level Manipulation of the training principles and program variables determine the degree of adaptation
Is the duration of reps short or long?

CHRONIC ADAPTATIONS TO ANAEROBIC TRAINING

Anaerobic Adaptations include: 1.Muscular Hypertrophy 2.Increased muscular stores and ATP & CP 3.Increased glycolytic capacity 4.Cardiac Hypertrophy 5.Increase in size and strength of connective tissue (tendons/ligaments) 6.Increase in the number of motor units recruited for maximum muscle contractions 7. An increase in the speed of nerve-impulse transmission to muscle cell 8.An increase in the speed of contraction

CHRONIC ADAPTATIONS TO ANAEROBIC TRAINING

MUSCULAR HYPERTROPHY 1.Anaerobic training can lead to significant enlargement of muscle fibres (mainly type 2B fast twitch fibres); this is known as muscular hypertrophy 2.Increases in muscle size leads to subsequent increases in M.strength and M. Power. 3.Hypertrophy occurs due to:
1. Increase in size and number of myofibrils per muscle fibre 2. Increased amounts of myosin and actin filaments 3. Hypertrophy is more pronounced in males than females due to testosterone levels

CHRONIC ADAPTATIONS TO ANAEROBIC TRAINING

Muscle Fibre

CHRONIC ADAPTATIONS TO ANAEROBIC TRAINING

INCREASED MUSCULAR STORES OF ATP & CP
1. Hypertrophy is accompanied with increases in ATP and Creatine Phosphate stores. 2. There are also increased levels of enzymes which help break down and re-synthesise ATP. This obviously enables more energy to be released for muscular contraction, and faster restoration of ATP.
What activities would benefit from this adaptation?

CHRONIC ADAPTATIONS TO ANAEROBIC TRAINING

INCREASED GLYCOLYTIC CAPACITY As a result of increased glycogen stores and glycolytic enzymes, the anaerobic system is able to produce greater quantities of energy via anaerobic glycolysis for longer periods of time; i.e. anaerobic capacity increases. The athlete is also able to tolerate higher levels of lactic acid/H+ allowing the athlete to produce greater quantities of energy for longer periods of time. CARDIAC HYPERTROPHY The increase in the size of the heart from anaerobic training is primarily an increase in the THICKNESS of the ventricular walls. SV doesnt change, but the velocity of ejection increases

Generalised potential increases in anaerobic energy metabolism of skeletal muscle with heavy training
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Anaerobic enzymes PCr ATP Glycolytic capacity Glycogen

CHRONIC ADAPTATIONS TO ANAEROBIC TRAINING

Anaerobic (Muscular)
Muscular Hypertrophy Enlargement of the fast twitch muscle fibres Increased muscular stores of ATP, PC, creatine and glycogen. Increased ATP-PC splitting and resynthesis of enzymes Increased glycolytic capacity Enhances lactic acid systems ability to use glycogen. Cardiac hypertrophy Increases contraction forces exerted by the left ventricle in the heart. Increased contractile proteins in muscles.
Increased myosin ATPase Molecule responsible for splitting ATP into ADP Increased muscle buffering capacity Muscles able to tolerate higher levels of fatiguing products Muscle hyperplasia Research in animals suggest that new muscle fibres may form under stress. Other Increase in strength of connective tissue, number of motor units, speed on nerve impulses and muscular contraction speed.

Characteristics of slow- and fast-twitch muscle fibres

Characteristic
Also known as Performance conditions Colour Oxidative enzymes Myoglobin content Glycolytic capacity Mitochondria density Capillary density Calcium capacity Myosin ATPase Phosphocreatine stores

Fast-twitch
Type 11B Purely anaerobic white low low high low low high high high

Fast-twitch
Type 11A Partially aerobic White/red medium medium high medium medium Medium/low high Medium/low

Slow-twitch
Type 1 aerobic red high High Low High High low Low Low

Triglyceride stores
Fibre diameter Contraction speed

low
large high

Medium/low
intermediate moderate

High
Small slow

Force capacity
Fatigue resistance

high
low

intermediate
Medium/low

Low
high

Changes in physiological and metabolic functions with various durations of detraining in primarily aerobic trained athletes (averages in reported literature) Variable Short term (< three weeks of detraining) % decrease 20 8 9 17 Longer term ( 3 to 12 weeks of detraining) % decrease 35 20 25 29

VO2 max (mL/kg/min) Cardiac output (L/min) Stroke volume (mL) Capillary density (cap/mm)

Glycogen (mM)
Phosphocreatine (mM) Oxidative enzyme capacity Lactate threshold Muscle glycogen synthesis

24
15 29 7 29

50
27 32 18 40