Professional Documents
Culture Documents
2-1
2-2
Chapter 2
2-3
Basic Chemistry
Matter, Mass, and Weight
Matter: anything that occupies space and has mass Mass: the amount of matter in an object Weight: the gravitational force acting on an object of a given mass
2-4
Atomic Structure
Atoms: composed of subatomic particles
Neutrons: no electrical charge Protons: one positive charge Electrons: one negative charge
Nucleus: formed by protons and neutrons Most of the volume of an atom occupied by electrons
2-5
2-6
2-7
Radioactive Isotopes
Forms of atoms that emit radioactivity such as gamma rays, which can then be measured Used clinically and in research Examples of uses
Tracking hormone uptake Treating cancer Sterilization of materials to be used in surgery
2-8
2-9
2-10
Covalent Bonding
Atoms share one or more pairs of electrons
Single covalent: two atoms share one pair of electrons Double covalent: Two atoms share 4 electrons Nonpolar covalent: Electrons shared equally because nuclei attract the electrons equally Polar covalent: Electrons not shared equally because one nucleus attracts the electrons more than the other does
2-11
Compounds: a substance composed of two or more different types of atoms chemically combined
Example: water (H2O)
Intermolecular Forces
Forces between molecules Result from weak electrostatic attractions between oppositely charged parts or molecules, or between ions and molecules Weaker than forces producing chemical bonding
2-13
2-15
Intermolecular Forces:
Solubility and Dissociation
Solubility: ability of one substance to dissolve in another For example, sugar or salt dissolves in water Dissociation or Separation: in ionic compounds, cations are attracted to negative end and anions attracted to positive end of water molecules; the ions separate and each becomes surrounded by water molecules Electrolyte: dissociation of an ionic compound in water
2-16
Nonelectrolytes: solutions made by molecules that dissolve in water, but do not dissociate; do not conduct electricity
2-17
Chemical Reactions
Atoms, ions, molecules or compounds interact to form or break chemical bonds
Reactants: substances that enter into a chemical reaction. Products: substances that result from the reaction
Chemical bonds are made (synthesis; anabolism) and broken (decomposition; catabolism) during chemical reactions Metabolism: collective term used for the sum of all of the anabolic and catabolic reactions in the body
2-18
Synthetic Reactions
Two or more reactants chemically combine to form a new and larger product. Anabolism.
Chemical bonds made; energy stored in the bonds. Responsible for growth, maintenance and repair Hydrolysis: synthetic reaction where water is a product Produce chemicals characteristic of life: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids
2-19
Decomposition Reactions
A large reactant is broken down to form smaller products. Catabolism.
Chemical bonds broken; energy released. Hydrolysis: water is split into two parts that contribute to the formation of the products Example: the breakdown of ATP to form ADP and inorganic phosphate with a concomitant release of free energy
2-20
Reversible Reactions
Chemical reactions in which the reaction can proceed either from reactants to products or from products to reactants. Equilibrium: rate of product formation is equal to rate of reactant formation Example: CO2 and H+ formation in plasma
2-21
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Oxidation: loss of an electron by an atom Reduction: gain of an electron by an atom Oxidation-Reduction Reactions: the complete or partial loss of an electron by one atom is accompanied by the gain of that electron by another atom
Synthetic/decomposition reactions can be oxidative reduction reactions Reactions can be described in more than one way
2-22
2-24
Heat Energy
When a chemical bond is broken and energy is released, only some of that energy is used to manufacture ATP. Energy that is released but not captured is released as heat. The heat used by humans to maintain body temperature.
2-25
Concentration of reactants.
As concentration of reactants increases, rate of reaction increases. A decrease of O2 in cells can cause death as rate of aerobic chemical reactions decreases.
Catalysts: substances that increase the rate of chemical reactions without being permanently changed or depleted
Enzymes: proteinaceous catalysts that increase the rate of chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy necessary for reaction to begin
Activation Energy: minimum energy reactants must have to start a chemical reaction
2-26
2-27
Chemistry
Inorganic Chemistry: generally, substances that do not contain carbon
Water, oxygen Exceptions: CO, CO2, and HCO3-
Organic Chemistry: study of carboncontaining substances. Those that are biologically active are called biochemicals.
2-28
Water
High specific heat: large amount of heat required to raise temperature of water
Stabilizes body temperature
Protection
Lubricant, cushion
Solution: mixture of liquids, gasses, or solids that are uniformly distributed and chemically combined
Solvent: that which dissolves the solute Solute: that which dissolves in the solvent
2-31
The pH Scale
Refers to the Hydrogen ion concentration in a solution
Neutral: pH of 7 or equal hydrogen and hydroxide ions Acidic: a greater concentration of hydrogen ions Alkaline or basic: a greater concentration of hydroxide ions
2-32
2-34
Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides
Simple sugars. Six-carbon sugars like glucose, fructose, and galactose are important in the diet as energy sources. Five-carbon sugars are components of ATP, DNA and RNA
2-35
Carbohydrates: Disaccharides
Two simple sugars bound together by dehydration Examples: sucrose, lactose, maltose
2-36
Carbohydrates: Polysaccharides
Long chains of many monosaccharides. Storage molecules for monosaccharides and form part of cell surface markers Glycogen formed by animals. Starch and cellulose formed by plants
Starch in food is used as a source of monosaccharides Cellulose in food acts as fiber (bulk) in the diet
2-37
Lipids: Fats
Lipids: Phospholipids
Polar (hydrophilic) at one end; nonpolar (hydrophobic) at the other.
Function: important structural component of cell membranes
2-39
Lipids: Steroids
Cholesterol, bile salts, estrogen, testosterone.
Carbon atoms arranged in four rings Functions: physiological regulators and component of cell membranes
2-40
2-41
Proteins
Amino acids: building blocks of protein Peptide bonds: covalent bonds formed between amino acids during protein synthesis
2-42
Protein Structure
Primary: sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain Secondary: folding and bending of chain caused by hydrogen bonding Tertiary: formation of helices or of pleated sheets; caused in part by SS bonds between amino acids Quaternary: two or more proteins associate as a functional unit
2-43
Nucleotides
Composed of a five-carbon sugar, a nitrogenous base, and a phosphate Include the nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) and ATP
2-45
Responsible for interpreting the code within DNA into the primary structure of proteins.
2-47
Energy currency of the body Provides energy for other chemical reactions as anabolism or drive cell processes as muscle contraction All energy-requiring chemical reactions stop when there is inadequate ATP
2-48