Training Session on Energy Equipment

Fuels & Combustion

Presentation from the Energy Efficiency Guide for Industry in Asia www.energyefficiencyasia.org

1 UNEP 2006

Training Agenda: Fuels & Combustion

Introduction Type of fuels Performance evaluation Energy efficiency opportunities

2 UNEP 2006

Introduction The Formation of Fuels

Solar energy is converted to chemical energy through photosynthesis in plants Energy produced by burning wood or fossil fuels
Fossil fuels: coal, oil and natural gas

3 UNEP 2006

Training Agenda: Fuels & Combustion

Introduction Type of fuels Performance evaluation Energy efficiency opportunities

4 UNEP 2006

Type of Fuels
Liquid Fuels
Usage
Used extensively in industrial applications

Examples
Furnace oil Light diesel oil Petrol Kerosine Ethanol LSHS (low sulphur heavy stock)
5 UNEP 2006

Type of Fuels Liquid Fuels

Density
Ratio of the fuels mass to its volume at 15 oC,

kg/m3
Useful for determining fuel quantity and quality

6 UNEP 2006

Type of Fuels
Liquid Fuels
Specific gravity
Ratio of weight of oil volume to weight of same water volume at a given temperature Specific gravity of water is 1 Hydrometer used to measure
Table 1. Specific gravity of various fuel oils (adapted from Thermax India Ltd.) Fuel oil type Specific Gravity LDO (Light Diesel Oil) 0.85-0.87 Furnace oil 0.89-0.95 LSHS (Low Sulphur Heavy Stock) 0.88-0.98
7 UNEP 2006

Type of Fuels Liquid Fuels

Viscosity
Measure of fuels internal resistance to flow

Most important characteristic for storage and use

Decreases as temperature increases

Flash point
Lowest temperature at which a fuel can be heated so that the vapour gives off flashes when an open flame is passes over it Flash point of furnace oil: 66oC
8 UNEP 2006

Type of Fuels
Liquid Fuels
Pour point
Lowest temperature at which fuel will flow Indication of pumped temperature at which fuel can be

Specific heat
kCal needed to raise temperature of 1 kg oil by 1oC (kcal/kgoC)

Indicates how much steam/electricity it takes to heat oil to a desired temperature

9 UNEP 2006

Type of Fuels
Liquid Fuels
Calorific value
Heat or energy produced Gross calorific value (GCV): vapour is fully condensed Net calorific value (NCV): water is not fully condensed
Fuel Oil Kerosene Diesel Oil L.D.O Furnace Oil LSHS Gross Calorific Value (kCal/kg) 11,100 10,800 10,700 10,500 10,600

10 UNEP 2006

Type of Fuels
Liquid Fuels
Sulphur content
Depends on source of crude oil and less on the refining process Furnace oil: 2-4 % sulphur Sulphuric acid causes corrosion

Ash content
Inorganic material in fuel
Typically 0.03 - 0.07% Corrosion of burner tips and damage to materials /equipments at high temperatures
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Type of Fuels Liquid Fuels

Carbon residue
Tendency of oil to deposit a carbonaceous solid residue on a hot surface Residual oil: >1% carbon residue

Water content
Normally low in furnace oil supplied (<1% at refinery)
Free or emulsified form
12 UNEP 2006

Can damage furnace surface and impact flame

Type of Fuels Liquid Fuels

Storage of fuels
Store in cylindrical tanks above or below the ground Recommended storage: >10 days of normal consumption

Cleaning at regular intervals

13 UNEP 2006

Type of Fuels Liquid Fuels

Typical specifications of fuel oils
(adapted from Thermax India Ltd.)

Properties Furnace Oil

Density (Approx. g/cc at 150C)
Flash Point (0C) Pour Point (0C) G.C.V. (Kcal/kg)

Fuel Oils L.S.H.S

0.88-0.98
93 72 10600

L.D.O
0.85-0.87
66 18 10700

0.89-0.95
66 20 10500

Sediment, % Wt. Max.

Sulphur Total, % Wt. Max. Water Content, % Vol. Max. Ash % Wt. Max.

0.25
< 4.0 1.0 0.1

0.25
< 0.5 1.0 0.1

0.1
< 1.8 0.25 14 0.02 UNEP 2006

Type of Fuels Solid Fuels

Coal classification
Anthracite: hard and geologically the oldest Bituminous Lignite: soft coal and the youngest Further classification: semi- anthracite, semi-bituminous, and sub-bituminous
15 UNEP 2006

Type of Fuels
Solid Fuels
Physical properties
Heating or calorific value (GCV) Moisture content Volatile matter Ash

Chemical properties
Chemical constituents: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur 16
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Type of Fuels
Solid Fuels (Physical properties)
Heating or calorific value
The typical GVCs for various coals are: Parameter Lignite (Dry Basis) 4,500 Indian Coal 4,000 Indonesian Coal 5,500 South African Coal 6,000

GCV (kCal/kg)

17 UNEP 2006

Type of Fuels
Solid Fuels (Physical properties)
Moisture content
% of moisture in fuel (0.5 10%) Reduces heating value of fuel

Weight loss from heated and then cooled powdered raw coal

Volatile matter
Methane, hydrocarbons, hydrogen, CO, other Typically 25-35% Easy ignition with high volatile matter Weight loss from heated then cooled crushed coal
18 UNEP 2006

Type of Fuels
Solid Fuels (Physical properties)
Ash
Impurity that will not burn (5-40%) Important for design of furnace Ash = residue after combustion

Fixed carbon
Fixed carbon = 100 (moisture + volatile matter + ash) Carbon + hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur, nitrogen residues Heat generator during combustion
19 UNEP 2006

Type of Fuels
Solid Fuels (Physical properties)
Proximate analysis of coal
Determines only fixed carbon, volatile matter, moisture and ash Useful to find out heating value (GCV) Simple analysis equipment

Ultimate analysis of coal

Determines all coal component elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur, other Useful for furnace design (e.g flame temperature, flue duct design) Laboratory analysis
20 UNEP 2006

Type of Fuels Solid Fuels (Physical properties)

Proximate analysis
Typical proximate analysis of various coals (%)
Indian Coal
Moisture Ash Volatile matter Fixed Carbon 5.98 38.63 20.70 34.69

Indonesian Coal
9.43 13.99 29.79 46.79

South African Coal

8.5 17 23.28 51.22
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Type of Fuels Solid Fuels (Chemical Properties)

Ultimate analysis
Typical ultimate analysis of coal (%)
Parameter Moisture Mineral Matter (1.1 x Ash) Carbon Hydrogen Nitrogen Sulphur Oxygen Indian Coal, % 5.98 38.63 41.11 2.76 1.22 0.41 9.89 Indonesian Coal, % 9.43 13.99 58.96 4.16 1.02 0.56 11.88

GCV (kCal/kg)

4000

5500

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Type of Fuels Solid Fuels (Chemical Properties)

Storage, Handling & Preparation
Storage to minimize carpet loss and loss due to spontaneous combustion Reduce carpet loss: a) a hard surface b) standard concrete/brick storage bays Coal preparation before use is important for good combustion

23 UNEP 2006

Type of Fuels Gaseous Fuels

Advantages of gaseous fuels
Least amount of handling Simplest burners systems Burner systems require least maintenance Environmental benefits: lowest GHG and other emissions
24 UNEP 2006

Type of Fuels
Gaseous Fuels
Classification of gaseous fuels
(A) Fuels naturally found in nature -Natural gas -Methane from coal mines (B) Fuel gases made from solid fuel -Gases derived from coal -Gases derived from waste and biomass -From other industrial processes (C) Gases made from petroleum -Liquefied Petroleum gas (LPG) -Refinery gases -Gases from oil gasification (D) Gases from some fermentation

25 UNEP 2006

Type of Fuels Gaseous Fuels

Calorific value
Fuel should be compared based on the net calorific value (NCV), especially natural gas
Typical physical and chemical properties of various gaseous fuels
Fuel Gas
Natural Gas
Propane

Relative Density
0.6
1.52

Higher Heating Value kCal/Nm3

9350
22200

Air/Fuel ratio m3/m3

10
25

Flame Temp oC
1954
1967

Flame speed m/s

0.290
0.460

Butane

1.96

28500

32

1973

0.870
26 UNEP 2006

Type of Fuels Gaseous Fuels

Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)
Propane, butane and unsaturates, lighter C2

and heavier C5 fractions Hydrocarbons are gaseous at atmospheric pressure but can be condensed to liquid state LPG vapour is denser than air: leaking gases can flow long distances from the source

27 UNEP 2006

Type of Fuels
Gaseous Fuels
Natural gas
Methane: 95% Remaing 5%: ethane, propane, butane, pentane, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, other gases High calorific value fuel Does not require storage facilities

No sulphur
Mixes readily with air without producing smoke or soot
28 UNEP 2006

Type of Fuels Comparing Fuels

Fuel Oil
Carbon Hydrogen Sulphur Oxygen Nitrogen 84 12 3 1 Trace

Coal
41.11 2.76 0.41 9.89 1.22

Natural Gas
74 25 Trace 0.75

Ash
Water

Trace
Trace

38.63
5.98

29 UNEP 2006

Training Agenda: Fuels & Combustion

Introduction Type of fuels Performance evaluation Energy efficiency opportunities

30 UNEP 2006

Performance Evaluation
Principles of Combustion
Combustion: rapid oxidation of a fuel
Complete combustion: total oxidation of fuel (adequate supply of oxygen needed)

Air: 20.9% oxygen, 79% nitrogen and other

Nitrogen: (a) reduces the combustion efficiency (b) forms NOx at high temperatures Carbon forms (a) CO2 (b) CO resulting in less heat production
31 UNEP 2006

Performance Evaluation
Principles of Combustion
Control the 3 Ts to optimize combustion:
1T) Temperature 2T) Turbulence

3T) Time
Water vapor is a by-product of burning fuel that contains hydrogen and this robs heat from the flue gases
32 UNEP 2006

Performance Evaluation Principle of Combustion

Oxygen is the key to combustion

Bureau of Energy Efficiency, India, 2004

33 UNEP 2006

Performance Evaluation
Stochiometric calculation of air required
Stochiometric air needed for combustion of furnace oil Theoretical CO2 content in the flue gases

Actual CO2 content and % excess air

Constituents of flue gas with excess air Theoretical CO2 and O2 in dry flue gas by volume
34 UNEP 2006

Performance Evaluation Concept of Excess Air

Measure CO2 in flue gases to estimate excess air level and stack losses Excess air (%)

Carbon dioxide (%)

Source: Bureau of Energy Efficiency, India, 2004

35 UNEP 2006

Performance Evaluation
Concept of Excess Air
Measure O2 in flue gases to estimate excess air level and stack losses

Excess air (%)

Residual oxygen (%)

36

Bureau of Energy Efficiency, India, 2004

UNEP 2006

Performance Evaluation
Draft System
To exhaust combustion products to atmosphere
Natural draft:
Caused by weight difference between the hot gases inside the chimney and outside air No fans or blowers are used

Mechanical draft:
Artificially produced by fans Three types a) balanced draft, b) induced draft and c) 37 forced draft

UNEP 2006

Training Agenda: Fuels & Combustion

Introduction Type of fuels Performance evaluation Energy efficiency opportunities

38 UNEP 2006

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

Four main areas
Preheating of combustion oil Temperature control of combustion oil Preparation of solid fuels Combustion controls

39 UNEP 2006

Energy Efficiency Opportunities Preheating of Combustion Oil

Purpose: to make furnace oil easier to pump
Two methods:
Preheating the entire tank
Preheating through an outflow heater as the oil flows out

40 UNEP 2006

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

Temperature Control of Combustion Oil
To prevent overheating
With reduced or stopped oil flow

Especially electric heaters

Using thermostats

41 UNEP 2006

Energy Efficiency Opportunities Preparation of Solid Fuels

Sizing and screening of coal
Important for efficient combustion Size reduction through crushing and pulverizing (< 4 - 6 mm) Screen to separate fines and small particles Magnetic separator for iron pieces in coal

42 UNEP 2006

Energy Efficiency Opportunities Preparation of Solid Fuels

Conditioning of coal:
Coal fines cause combustion problems Segregation can be reduced by conditioning coal with water Decrease % unburnt carbon
Decrease excess air level required

43 UNEP 2006

Energy Efficiency Opportunities Preparation of Solid Fuels

Blending of coal
Used with excessive coal fines
Blending of lumped coal with coal containing fines

Limits fines in coal being fired to <25%

Ensures more uniform coal supply

44 UNEP 2006

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

Combustion Controls
Assist burner to achieve optimum boiler efficiency through the regulation of fuel supply, air supply, and removal of combustion gases Three controls:
On/Off control: burner is firing at full rate or it is turned off High/Low/Off control: burners with two firing rates Modulating control: matches steam pressure demand by altering the firing rate
45 UNEP 2006

Training Session on Energy Equipment

Fuels & Combustion

THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION

46 UNEP GERIAP

Disclaimer and References

This PowerPoint training session was prepared as part of the project Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction from Industry in Asia and the Pacific (GERIAP). While reasonable efforts have been made to ensure that the contents of this publication are factually correct and properly referenced, UNEP does not accept responsibility for the accuracy or completeness of the contents, and shall not be liable for any loss or damage that may be occasioned directly or indirectly through the use of, or reliance on, the contents of this publication. UNEP, 2006. The GERIAP project was funded by the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida) Full references are included in the textbook chapter that is 47 available on www.energyefficiencyasia.org
UNEP 2006